8. 건강에 대한 잠재적인 영향
임상시험의 메타분석에서 프럭토스(과당)는 체중 증가에 대한 독립 변인이 아닌 것으로 나타났다. 그러나 프럭토스가 과량의 칼로리를 제공할 때, 체중 증가와 관련이 있었다.[135]
프럭토스는 대사증후군의 일부인 비만, 당뇨병, 심혈관계 질환의 위험 증가와 관련되어 있지만,[136] 임상연구에서는 프럭토스 자체가 저밀도 지질단백질과 트라이글리세라이드를 증가시켜 대사증후군을 유발한다는 직접적인 증거는 없거나 부족하다고 보고되었다.[137] 오히려 설탕이 첨가된 식품 및 음료의 과도한 섭취와 칼로리 증가가 대사증후군의 근원이라고 한다.[136] 마찬가지로 단 음식 및 음료의 소비 증가는 고혈압을 비롯한 심혈관계 질환의 위험을 증가시키지만,[138][139] 프럭토스가 직접적인 원인이라는 증거는 없다.[136]
2022년 유럽 식품 안전청(EFSA)은 프럭토스 및 기타 첨가된 유리당이 여러 만성 질환의 위험 증가와 관련될 수 있다는 연구 증거가 있다고 밝혔으며, 비만 및 이상지질혈증의 위험은 중간(50% 이상), 비알코올 지방간 질환, 제2형 당뇨병 (15%에서 50%), 고혈압의 위험은 낮다고 언급했다.
과당은 포도당에 비해 고리 열림률이 높고 생체에 대한 독성은 포도당보다 훨씬 높다. 간은 이 독성을 빨리 없애기 위해 포도당보다 과당을 우선적으로 처리한다.[81]
과당은 소장에서 흡수될 때 일정량까지는 소장에서 빠르게 포도당으로 변환되어 문맥으로 들어간다.[82] 포도당으로 변환되지 않은 과당은 문맥에서 간에 도달하여 간세포로 들어가 프럭토키나아제에 의해 인산화되어 과당-1-인산을 생성하고, 과당-1,6-이중인산을 거쳐 해당 과정에 들어가 피루브산을 생성한다. 다량의 과당 섭취는 피루브산 처리가 따라가지 못해 다량의 젖산을 생성하여 젖산 산증을 유발할 수 있다. 또한, 다량의 과당 섭취는 피루브산을 탈탄산하여 다량의 아세틸 CoA를 생성하고, 지방산 합성에 이용되어 중성 지방 생성을 촉진하여 만성적인 중성 지방 생성은 고트리글리세리드혈증을 일으킨다.
8. 1. 수크로스와 비교
유럽 식품안전청(European Food Safety Authority)의 전문가 패널은 프럭토스가 식사 후 혈당량에 미치는 효과가 낮기 때문에 식품 및 음료 제조에 있어 수크로스(설탕)와 글루코스(포도당)를 대체하는 물질로 선호된다고 밝혔다.[94] 프럭토스는 이자의 β 세포에 의한 인슐린 생산을 유발하지 않기 때문에 당뇨병 환자들에게 권장되기도 한다. 이는 β 세포가 GLUT5를 적게 가지기 때문일 수 있다.[140][141][142] 50g을 기준으로 했을 때, 프럭토스의 혈당지수는 23으로, 글루코스의 100, 수크로스의 60에 비해 낮다.[143] 또한 프럭토스는 상온에서 수크로스보다 73% 더 달기 때문에 1회 제공량이 더 적다. 식사 전에 프럭토스를 섭취하면 식사의 혈당 반응을 감소시킬 수 있다.[144] 프럭토스 첨가 식품 및 음료는 수크로스 또는 글루코스로 제조한 것보다 섭취 시 혈당량 상승폭이 작다.[94]
참조
[1]
웹사이트
2-Carb-10
https://iupac.qmul.a[...]
2023-06-18
[2]
웹사이트
Fructose
http://mw4.m-w.com/d[...]
Merriam-Webster
2014-12-10
[3]
웹사이트
Levulose
http://www.monashsci[...]
2010-01-28
[4]
서적
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
[5]
웹사이트
ChemIDplus – 57-48-7 – BJHIKXHVCXFQLS-UYFOZJQFSA-N – Fructose [USP:JAN] – Similar structures search, synonyms, formulas, resource links, and other chemical information.
https://chem.nlm.nih[...]
US National Institutes of Health
2014-12-10
[6]
URL
https://diabetesjour[...]
[7]
논문
Sur une propriété analytique des fermentations alcoolique et lactique, et sur leur application à l'étude des sucres
https://books.google[...]
[8]
논문
Molecules and Life – Historical Essays on the Interplay of Chemistry and Biology
https://onlinelibrar[...]
Wiley-Interscience
2021-02-05
[9]
서적
Elements of Chemistry: Theoretical and Practical
https://archive.org/[...]
John W. Parker and son
1857
[10]
서적
Nutritive Sweeteners
Applied Science Publishers
[11]
간행물
fructose
Wiley-VCH
[12]
논문
Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to fructose and reduction of post-prandial glycaemic responses (ID 558) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006
EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies
[13]
웹사이트
Carbohydrates and Health
https://www.gov.uk/g[...]
UK Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition, Public Health England, TSO
2016-04-01
[14]
웹사이트
Fructose. Origin and meaning of fructose
https://www.etymonli[...]
Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper
2017-12-24
[15]
웹사이트
D-Fructose
https://pubchem.ncbi[...]
PubChem, US National Library of Medicine
2021-02-24
[16]
논문
NMR studies of the tautomer distributions of d‑fructose in lower alcohols/DMSO‑d6
https://doi.org/10.1[...]
2021-02-24
[17]
논문
Studies on Ketoses, 1 Distribution of Furanoid and Pyranoid Tautomers of D-Fructose in Water, Dimethyl Sulfoxide, and Pyridinevia1H NMR Intensities of Anomeric Hydroxy Groups in [D6]DMSO
https://doi.org/10.1[...]
2021-02-24
[18]
논문
Detection of the open-chain forms of d-fructose and L-sorbose in aqueous solution by using 13C-n.m.r. spectroscopy
https://doi.org/10.1[...]
2021-02-24
[19]
서적
Foods: Experimental Perspectives, 4th Edition
https://archive.org/[...]
Prentice Hall
[20]
웹사이트
Yeast and Sugar- the Chemistry must be right
http://www.chemie.un[...]
[21]
논문
Protein fructosylation: Fructose and the Maillard reaction
[22]
논문
Synthesis of transportation fuels from biomass: chemistry, catalysts, and engineering
https://works.bepres[...]
2020-08-28
[23]
논문
Manufacturing, composition, and applications of fructose
http://ajcn.nutritio[...]
2017-02-07
[24]
웹사이트
Sugar Sweetness
http://food.oregonst[...]
Oregon State University
2017-02-07
[25]
서적
Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology
2000-01-01
[26]
논문
Sweeteners for frozen [desserts] success – a review
http://agris.fao.org[...]
2017-02-07
[27]
서적
Taste Chemistry
Chapman and Hall
[28]
서적
American Sweeteners
[29]
서적
Foods: Experimental Perspectives, 4th Edition
https://archive.org/[...]
Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall
[30]
논문
Predicting gelatinization temperature of starch/sweetener system for cake formulation by differential scanning calorimetry I. Development of a model
[31]
서적
New Good Food: Essential Ingredients for Cooking and Eating Well. Diet and Nutrition Series; pages 249–51
https://archive.org/[...]
Ten Speed Press
[32]
논문
Intakes and food sources of fructose in the United States
[33]
논문
Fructose absorption
[34]
서적
Sugars and Sweeteners
CRC Press, Inc.
[35]
Webarchive
https://fdc.nal.usda[...]
2019-10-25
[36]
웹사이트
High Fructose Corn Syrup: Questions and Answers
https://www.fda.gov/[...]
US Food and Drug Administration
2017-12-18
[37]
논문
Straight talk about high-fructose corn syrup: What it is and what it ain't
[38]
논문
Food sources of added sweeteners in the diets of Americans
[39]
웹사이트
Calories and nutrient composition for fructose, dry powder per 100 g
https://ndb.nal.usda[...]
USDA National Nutrient Database, version SR-28
2016-05
[40]
웹사이트
Calories and nutrient composition for sucrose granules per 100 g
https://ndb.nal.usda[...]
USDA National Nutrient Database, version SR-28
2016-05
[41]
서적
Biochemical, Physiological, and Molecular Aspects of Human Nutrition, 2nd Edition
W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA
[42]
논문
Fructose and metabolic diseases: too much to be good
https://journals.lww[...]
2022-02-15
[43]
논문
Intestinal absorption of fructose in the rat
[44]
논문
"Absorption of fructose by isolated small intestine of rats is via a specific saturable carrier in the absence of glucose and by the disaccharidase-related transport system in the presence of glucose"
[45]
논문
Dietary and developmental regulation of intestinal sugar transport
[46]
논문
Fructose intake at current levels in the United States may cause gastrointestinal distress in normal adults
[47]
논문
Fructose: incomplete intestinal absorption in humans
[48]
논문
Fructose absorption
[49]
논문
Absorption capacity of fructose in healthy adults. Comparison with sucrose and its constituent monosaccharides
[50]
논문
Dietary fructose and gastrointestinal symptoms: a review
[51]
논문
The effect of exercise on fructose absorption
[52]
서적
Carbohydrate Digestion and Absorption
Saunders, Elsevier
[53]
논문
Insulin regulates the expression of the GLUT5 transporter in L6 skeletal muscle cells
2003-08
[54]
논문
Enhancement of glycogen concentrations in primary cultures of rat hepatocytes exposed to glucose and fructose
[55]
논문
Fructose and Uric Acid: Is There a Role in Endothelial Function?
2014-06
[56]
논문
Fructose transporter Glut5 expression in clear renal cell carcinoma
2011-02-01
[57]
서적
Carbohydrate metabolism: Synthesis and oxidation
Saunders, Elsevier
[58]
서적
Metabolism of Fatty Acids, Acylglycerols, and Sphingolipids
Saunders, Elsevier
[59]
논문
Tolerable upper intake level for dietary sugars
https://doi.org/10.2[...]
2022-10-03
[60]
논문
Health implications of fructose consumption: A review of recent data
[61]
논문
Glucose transporters in the 21st Century (Review)
[62]
웹사이트
Glycemic index
http://www.glycemici[...]
Glycemic Index Testing and Research, University of Sydney (Australia) Glycemic Index Research Service (SUGiRS)
2018-02-23
[63]
논문
Fructose Prefeeding Reduces the Glycemic Response to a High-Glycemic Index, Starchy Food in Humans
[64]
문서
Levulose comes from the Latin word laevus, levo, "left side", levulose is the old word for the most occurring isomer of fructose. D-fructose rotate plane-polarised light to the left, hence the name.
http://www.monashsci[...]
[65]
문서
Fructose - Merriam Webster dictionary
http://mw4.m-w.com/d[...]
[66]
서적
Nutritive Sweeteners
Applied Science Publishers
[67]
문서
20{{Lang|en|°C}}での溶解度は375.0 g/100g H2O、40{{Lang|en|°C}}では538.0 g/100g H2Oである。
[68]
문서
Fruton, J.S. Molecules of Life 1972, Wiley-Interscience
[69]
웹사이트
フルクトース(果糖)の構造
http://rikanet2.jst.[...]
2011-04-12
[70]
서적
Foods: Experimental Perspectives, 4th Edition
[71]
웹사이트
Yeast and Sugar- the Chemistry must be right
http://www.chemie.un[...]
2011-04-12
[72]
논문
Role of fructose in glycation and cross-linking of proteins
[73]
논문
Protein fructosylation: Fructose and the Maillard reaction
[74]
간행물
[75]
웹사이트
Fructose in our diet
http://www.medbio.in[...]
2008-12-28
[76]
논문
Manufacturing, composition, and application of fructose
[77]
웹사이트
Sugar Sweetness
http://food.oregonst[...]
Oregon State University
2008-05-05
[78]
간행물
[79]
웹사이트
“クスリ”としての砂糖
https://sugar.alic.g[...]
独立行政法人農畜産業振興機構
2017-07-08
[80]
법률
砂糖及びでん粉の価格調整に関する法律
[81]
논문
糖質ー特にフルクトースに関してー
https://doi.org/10.6[...]
日本痛風・核酸代謝学会
2010
[82]
논문
The Small Intestine Converts Dietary Fructose into Glucose and Organic Acids
https://linkinghub.e[...]
2018-02
[83]
웹사이트
[解説]高カロリー輸液施行中に認められるアシドーシス
http://www.umin.ac.j[...]
[84]
웹인용
Fructose – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary
http://mw4.m-w.com/d[...]
Mw4.m-w.com
2014-12-10
[85]
웹인용
Levulose
http://www.monashsci[...]
2010-01-28
[86]
문서
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
[87]
웹인용
ChemIDplus – 57-48-7 – BJHIKXHVCXFQLS-UYFOZJQFSA-N – Fructose [USP:JAN] – Similar structures search, synonyms, formulas, resource links, and other chemical information.
http://chem.sis.nlm.[...]
Chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov
2014-12-10
[88]
웹사이트
Sur une propriété analytique des fermentations alcoolique et lactique, et sur leur application à l’étude des sucres
https://books.google[...]
[89]
서적
Molecules of Life
Wiley-Interscience
[90]
서적
'Elements of Chemistry: Theoretical and Practical, Part III. Organic Chemistry'
https://books.google[...]
John W. Parker and son, London, England
1857
[91]
서적
Nutritive Sweeteners
https://archive.org/[...]
Applied Science Publishers
[92]
간행물
Fructose
Wiley-VCH, Weinheim
[93]
저널
Fructose-containing sugars and cardiovascular disease
2015-07-01
[94]
저널
Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to fructose and reduction of post-prandial glycaemic responses (ID 558) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006
https://efsa.onlinel[...]
[95]
웹인용
Carbohydrates and Health
https://www.gov.uk/g[...]
UK Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition, Public Health England, TSO, Williams Lea, Norwich, UK
2015
[96]
웹인용
Fructose. Origin and meaning of fructose
https://www.etymonli[...]
Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper
2017
[97]
웹인용
Institute of Organic Chemistry
http://www.oci.unizh[...]
[98]
서적
'Foods: Experimental Perspectives, 4th Edition'
https://archive.org/[...]
[99]
웹인용
Yeast and Sugar- the Chemistry must be right
http://www.chemie.un[...]
[100]
저널
Protein fructosylation: Fructose and the Maillard reaction
[101]
간행물
[102]
저널
Manufacturing, composition, and applications of fructose.
http://ajcn.nutritio[...]
1993-11-01
[103]
웹사이트
Sugar Sweetness
http://food.oregonst[...]
Oregon State University
2017-02-07
[104]
저널
Sweeteners
http://onlinelibrary[...]
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2000-01-01
[105]
저널
Sweeteners for frozen [desserts] success – a review
http://agris.fao.org[...]
1994-11
[106]
서적
Taste Chemistry
Chapman and Hall
[107]
저널
American Sweeteners
[108]
서적
Foods: Experimental Perspectives, 4th Edition
https://archive.org/[...]
Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall
[109]
저널
Predicting gelatinization temperature of starch/sweetener system for cake formulation by differential scanning calorimetry I. Development of a model
[110]
서적
New Good Food: Essential Ingredients for Cooking and Eating Well. Diet and Nutrition Series; pages 249–51
https://books.google[...]
Ten Speed Press
[111]
저널
Intakes and food sources of fructose in the United States
[112]
저널
Fructose absorption
[113]
저널
Sugars and Sweeteners
CRC Press, Inc.
[114]
웹인용
Search the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference
http://www.nal.usda.[...]
Nal.usda.gov
2014-12-10
[115]
웹인용
High Fructose Corn Syrup: Questions and Answers
https://www.fda.gov/[...]
US Food and Drug Administration
2014-11-05
[116]
저널
Straight talk about high-fructose corn syrup: What it is and what it ain't
http://ajcn.nutritio[...]
[117]
저널
Food sources of added sweeteners in the diets of Americans
[118]
웹인용
Calories and nutrient composition for fructose, dry powder per 100 g
https://ndb.nal.usda[...]
USDA National Nutrient Database, version SR-28
2016-05
[119]
웹인용
Calories and nutrient composition for sucrose granules per 100 g
https://ndb.nal.usda[...]
USDA National Nutrient Database, version SR-28
2016-05
[120]
저널
Biochemical, Physiological, and Molecular Aspects of Human Nutrition, 2nd Edition
W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA
[121]
저널
Intestinal absorption of fructose in the rat
[122]
저널
Absorption of fructose by isolated small intestine of rats is via a specific saturable carrier in the absence of glucose and by the disaccharidase-related transport system in the presence of glucose
[123]
저널
Dietary and developmental regulation of intestinal sugar transport
[124]
저널
Fructose intake at current levels in the United States may cause gastrointestinal distress in normal adults
[125]
저널
Fructose: incomplete intestinal absorption in humans
[126]
저널
Fructose absorption
[127]
저널
Absorption capacity of fructose in healthy adults. Comparison with sucrose and its constituent monosaccharides
[128]
저널
Dietary fructose and gastrointestinal symptoms: a review
[129]
저널
The effect of exercise on fructose absorption
[130]
서적
Carbohydrate Digestion and Absorption
https://archive.org/[...]
Saunders, Elsevier
[131]
저널
Insulin regulates the expression of the GLUT5 transporter in L6 skeletal muscle cells
2003-08
[132]
저널
Enhancement of glycogen concentrations in primary cultures of rat hepatocytes exposed to glucose and fructose
[133]
서적
Carbohydrate metabolism: Synthesis and oxidation
https://archive.org/[...]
Saunders, Elsevier
[134]
서적
Metabolism of Fatty Acids, Acylglycerols, and Sphingolipids
https://archive.org/[...]
Saunders, Elsevier
[135]
저널
Effect of Fructose on Body Weight in Controlled Feeding Trials: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
2012-02-21
[136]
저널
Fructose and Cardiometabolic Health: What the Evidence from Sugar-Sweetened Beverages Tells Us
[137]
저널
Effects of dietary fructose on plasma lipids in healthy subjects
2000-11-01
[138]
저널
Fructose-Containing Sugars and Cardiovascular Disease
[139]
저널
Energy and fructose from beverages sweetened with sugar or high-fructose corn syrup pose a health risk for some people
2013-03-01
[140]
저널
Insulin Release from Human Pancreatic Islets in Vitro
null
1980-08
[141]
저널
Effects of Mannose and Fructose on the Synthesis and Secretion of Insulin
null
[142]
저널
Immunohistochemical Localization of Facilitated-Diffusion Glucose Transporters in Rat Pancreatic Islets
null
1996-12
[143]
웹인용
Glycemic index
http://www.glycemici[...]
Glycemic Index Testing and Research, University of Sydney (Australia) Glycemic Index Research Service (SUGiRS)
2018-02-23
[144]
저널
Fructose Prefeeding Reduces the Glycemic Response to a High-Glycemic Index, Starchy Food in Humans
http://jn.nutrition.[...]