5가지 성격 특성 요소

3. 5가지 성격 요인

5가지 성격 요인은 성격 특성을 나타내는 주요 요소들로, 각 요인은 독립적이면서도 서로 연관되어 개인의 성격을 구성한다. 각 요인과 그 내용은 다음과 같다.

• '''경험에 대한 개방성(Openness to experience)''': 상상력, 호기심, 모험심, 예술적 감각 등으로 보수주의에 반대되는 성향을 나타낸다. 지능, 상상력, 고정관념 타파, 심미적인 것에 대한 관심, 다양성에 대한 욕구, 품위 등과 관련된 특질을 포함한다.
• '''성실성(Conscientiousness)''': 목표를 성취하기 위해 성실하게 노력하는 성향을 의미한다. 심사숙고, 규준이나 규칙 준수, 계획 세우기, 조직화, 과제 준비 등과 같은 특질을 포함한다.
• '''외향성(Extraversion)''': 다른 사람과의 사교, 자극과 활력을 추구하는 성향을 뜻한다. 사회성, 활동성, 적극성과 같은 특질을 포함한다.
• '''우호성(Agreeableness)''': 타인에게 반항적이지 않고 협조적인 태도를 보이는 성향을 의미한다. 이타심, 애정, 신뢰, 배려, 겸손 등과 같은 특질을 포함한다.
• '''신경성(Neuroticism)''': 분노, 우울함, 불안감과 같은 불쾌한 정서를 쉽게 느끼는 성향을 말한다. 걱정, 두려움, 슬픔, 긴장 등과 같은 특질을 포함하며, 정서적 안정성은 이와 반대되는 특징이다.

3. 1. 경험에 대한 개방성(Openness to experience)

3. 1. 1. 하위 특성

• 풍부한 어휘력
• 생생한 상상력
• 훌륭한 아이디어
• 사물에 대한 빠른 이해
• 어려운 단어 사용
• 사물에 대해 숙고하는 시간
• 풍부한 아이디어
• 추상적인 개념을 이해하는 데 어려움을 느낌 (역순)^[81]
• 추상적인 개념에 관심 없음 (역순)^[81]
• 상상력 부족 (역순)^[81]

3. 2. 성실성(Conscientiousness)

3. 2. 1. 하위 특성

• 나는 항상 준비되어 있다.
• 나는 세부 사항에 주의를 기울인다.
• 나는 잡일을 바로 처리한다.
• 나는 일정을 따른다.
• 나는 내 일에 정확하다.
• 나는 질서를 좋아하지 않는다. (반대)
• 나는 내 물건을 여기저기 놓아둔다. (반대)
• 나는 일을 엉망으로 만든다. (반대)
• 나는 종종 물건을 제자리에 두는 것을 잊는다. (반대)
• 나는 내 의무를 회피한다. (반대)^[81]

3. 3. 외향성(Extraversion)

3. 3. 1. 하위 특성

3. 4. 우호성(Agreeableness)

3. 4. 1. 하위 특성

• 나는 사람들에게 관심이 많다.
• 나는 다른 사람들의 감정에 공감한다.
• 나는 마음이 따뜻하다.
• 나는 다른 사람들을 위해 시간을 낸다.
• 나는 다른 사람들의 감정을 느낀다.
• 나는 사람들을 편안하게 해 준다.
• 나는 다른 사람들에게 별로 관심이 없다. (반대)
• 나는 사람들을 모욕한다. (반대)
• 나는 다른 사람들의 문제에 관심이 없다. (반대)
• 나는 다른 사람들에게 거의 무관심하다. (반대)

3. 5. 신경성(Neuroticism)

3. 5. 1. 하위 특성

• 나는 쉽게 스트레스를 받는다.
• 나는 여러 가지 일들을 걱정한다.
• 나는 쉽게 불안해한다.
• 나는 쉽게 화가 난다.
• 나는 기분이 자주 변한다.
• 나는 기분 변화가 잦다.
• 나는 쉽게 짜증을 낸다.
• 나는 종종 우울하다.
• 나는 대부분의 시간 동안 편안하다. (역순)^[81]
• 나는 거의 우울하지 않다. (역순)^[81]

4. 발달 요인

5가지 성격 특성의 발달에는 유전적 요인과 환경적 요인이 모두 영향을 미친다. 1996년 행동 유전학적 쌍둥이 연구에서는 유전력과 환경적 요인이 모두 다섯 가지 요인에 동일한 정도로 영향을 미친다는 결과가 나왔다.^[107] 2003년에 조사된 네 가지 쌍둥이 연구에서는 각 성격에 대한 유전력의 평균 백분율을 계산하여, 유전력이 다섯 가지 요인에 광범위하게 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 자기 보고 척도에 따르면, 경험에 대한 개방성은 57%, 외향성은 54%, 성실성은 49%, 신경증은 48%, 우호성은 42%의 유전적 영향을 받는 것으로 추정되었다.^[108]

4. 1. 기질과 성격

4. 2. 유전

4. 3. 아동기 및 청소년기 발달

4. 4. 성인기 발달

5. 집단 차이

여러 문화권 간 연구에서 빅 파이브 성격 특성에 대한 집단 차이가 나타났다.

• 성별 차이: 여성은 신경성, 친화성 등에서 더 높은 경향을 보였고, 남성은 단호함 등에서 더 높은 경향을 보였다. 이러한 차이는 성 평등이 높은 국가에서 더 두드러지게 나타났다.^[293],^[596],^[597],^[598],^[599],^[600]
• 출생 순서 차이: 프랭크 설로웨이는 출생 순서에 따라 성격 특성에 차이가 있다고 주장했지만, 대규모 연구에서는 그 영향이 미미하거나 없는 것으로 나타났다.
• 문화적 차이: 빅 파이브 모델은 다양한 문화권에서 연구되었으며, 일부 연구에서는 특정 요인이 다르게 나타날 수 있음을 시사한다. 예를 들어, 아시아 국가에서는 개방성 요인이 뚜렷하게 나타나지 않을 수 있다. 또한, 국가의 평균 성격 특성 수준은 정치 체제와 관련이 있을 수 있다는 연구 결과도 있다.

5. 1. 성별 차이

5. 2. 출생 순서 차이

5. 3. 문화적 차이

6. 건강

5가지 성격 특성 요소와 건강 간의 관계는 여러 연구를 통해 밝혀졌다. 신경증은 부정적인 감정을 자주 경험하게 만들어 주관적인 건강 상태를 악화시킬 수 있다. 반면, 낙관적인 태도와 자기 통제 능력은 더 나은 주관적인 건강 상태와 관련이 있는 것으로 나타났다.^[364] 성실성이 높은 사람들은 더 오래 살고, 비만 위험이 감소하는 등 긍정적인 건강 결과를 보인다는 연구 결과도 있다.^[373]

알츠하이머병 환자의 경우 성실성이 감소하고 신경증적 경향은 증가하며, 외향성, 개방성, 친화성이 감소하는 모습을 보인다.^[364][375]

6. 1. 성격과 치매

6. 2. 성격 장애

6. 3. 일반적인 정신 질환

6. 3. 1. 성격-정신병리학 모델

• 취약성/위험 모델 (Vulnerability/risk model): 특정 성격 특성이 정신 질환 발병 위험을 높이는 요인으로 작용한다. 예를 들어, 높은 신경증적 경향을 가진 사람은 스트레스에 취약하여 우울증 발병 위험이 높아질 수 있다.
• 병리 형성 모델 (Pathoplasty model): 성격이 정신 질환의 발병 이후 경과, 발현 양상, 치료 반응 등에 영향을 미친다. 예를 들어, 높은 외향성을 가진 우울증 환자는 외향적인 성격으로 인해 증상이 덜 심각하게 보일 수 있다.
• 공통 원인 모델 (Common cause model): 성격 특성과 정신 질환이 공통된 원인(예: 유전적 요인, 어린 시절 경험)에 의해 발생한다.
• 스펙트럼 모델 (Spectrum model): 성격 특성과 정신 질환은 연속적인 스펙트럼 상에 위치하며, 극단적인 성격 특성은 정신 질환으로 이어진다. 예를 들어, 개방성이 극단적으로 높은 경우 환각, 망상 등의 증상을 보이는 조현병으로 이어질 수 있다.
• 흉터 모델 (Scar model): 정신 질환의 발병 및 경과가 성격에 영구적인 변화를 일으킨다. 예를 들어, 심각한 우울증을 겪은 후 신경증적 경향이 높아질 수 있다.

6. 4. 신체 건강

7. 생애를 통한 성격 특성의 영향

1990년대, 흐로닝언 대학교의 윔 호프스테는 네덜란드어 어휘 가설 접근 방식을 통해 국제 성격 항목 풀(International Personality Item Pool) 개발에 기여했다.^[68][69] 키봄 리와 마이클 애쉬턴은 2004년 HEXACO 모델을 발표하며, 기존 5가지 요소에 '정직-겸손' 요소를 추가했다.^[70] 2007년 콜린 드영, 레나 C. 퀼티, 조던 피터슨은 빅 파이브의 10가지 측면이 고유한 생물학적 기질을 가질 수 있다는 연구 결과를 발표했다.^[34]

2009년까지 성격 및 사회 심리학자들은 인간 행동을 설명하기 위해 개인적 변수와 상황적 변수 모두가 필요하다는 데 동의했다.^[72] 케임브리지 애널리티카(Cambridge Analytica)는 FFM 관련 검사를 사용했으며, 2016년 미국 대통령 선거 당시 "심리적 프로파일링"^[73] 논란의 중심에 있었다.^[74][75]

5가지 성격 특성 요소는 교육, 고용, 연애 관계, 정치, 종교 등 생애 다양한 영역에 영향을 미치는 것으로 알려져 있다.

• 교육: 성실성과 친화성은 학습 스타일과 긍정적인 관계를, 신경증은 부정적인 관계를 보였다. 외향성과 개방성은 정교화 처리와 관련이 있었다.^[204]
• 고용: 리더들은 신경증이 낮고, 개방성이 높으며, 성실성과 외향성이 균형을 이루는 경향을 보인다.^{[226][227][228]}
• 연애 관계: 성격의 빅 파이브 모델은 연애 및 결혼 관계의 질을 예측하는 데 사용되었다.^[237]
• 정치: 성실성이 높은 사람들은 우익 성향을, 개방성이 높은 사람들은 좌익 성향을 보였다.^{[238][239][240]}
• 종교: 친화성, 성실성, 외향성은 종교성과 관련이 있으며, 개방성은 종교 근본주의와 반대, 영성과는 긍정적인 관계를 보인다.^[245]

7. 1. 교육

• 신경성(Neuroticism): 변동성(Volatility)과 회피(Withdrawal)
• 외향성(Extraversion): 열정(Enthusiasm)과 단정성(Assertiveness)
• 경험에 대한 개방성(Openness to Experience): 지능(Intellect)과 개방성(Openness)
• 성실성(Conscientiousness): 성실성(Industriousness)과 질서정연함(Orderliness)
• 친화성(Agreeableness): 동정심(Compassion)과 예의 바름(Politeness)^[34]

7. 1. 1. 학업 성취도

• 평균평점(GPA)과 시험 성적은 모두 성실성에 의해 예측된다.
• 신경증은 학업 성공과 부정적인 관계가 있다.
• 개방성은 종합-분석 및 정교화 처리 학습 스타일의 활용을 예측한다.
• 신경증은 일반적으로 학습 스타일과 부정적인 상관관계를 갖는다.
• 개방성과 외향성은 모두 네 가지 학습 스타일을 모두 예측한다.^[1]

7. 1. 2. 학습 스타일

이 네 가지 학습 유형이 모두 교실에서 작용하면 학업 성취도가 향상될 가능성이 높다.^[1] 심층 처리 학습자는 피상적 처리 학습자보다 성실성, 지적 개방성, 외향성이 높은 경향이 있다. 심층 처리는 체계적인 학습과 정보 분석 능력(종합 분석)과 관련이 깊고, 피상적 처리 학습자는 구조화된 사실 암기 학습 유형을 선호하며 심화 처리에 적합하다.

개방성은 종합 분석, 체계적인 학습과 같이 학업 성취도와 높은 성적을 이끄는 학습 유형과 관련이 있다. 성실성과 개방성이 네 가지 학습 유형 모두를 예측하므로, 규율, 결단력, 호기심을 가진 사람이 모든 학습 유형에 참여할 가능성이 높다.

Komarraju, Karau, Schmeck & Avdic (2011)의 연구에 따르면, 성실성과 친화성은 네 가지 학습 유형 모두와 양의 상관관계가 있고, 신경증은 음의 상관관계가 있었다. 외향성과 개방성은 심화 처리와만 양의 상관관계가 있었고, 개방성 자체는 더 높은 학업 성취도와 상관관계가 있었다.^[1]

Mikael Jensen의 연구는 신경증을 제외한 모든 성격 특성이 학습 목표 및 동기와 관련이 있음을 보여주었다. 개방성과 성실성은 높은 수준의 학습에 영향을 미치고, 외향성과 친화성도 유사한 효과를 갖는다.^[212] 성실성과 신경증은 보상을 얻기 위해 다른 사람 앞에서 잘 수행하도록 영향을 미치고, 친화성은 이러한 학습 전략을 피하게 한다.^[212] 친화성이 높은 사람은 다른 사람 앞에서 잘 수행하기 위해서만 학습할 가능성이 높다.^[212]

개방성 외에도 모든 빅 파이브 성격 특성은 학생들의 교육적 정체성을 예측하는 데 도움이 된다. 빅 파이브 특성이 학업 동기에 큰 영향을 미쳐 학생의 학업 성취도를 예측할 수 있다.^[213]

일부 학자들은 빅 파이브 성격 특성과 학습 유형을 결합하면 개인의 학업 성취도와 학업 동기의 변화를 예측하는 데 도움이 된다고 주장한다.^[214] 성실성은 학습 지연을 덜 경험하게 하므로 시험 성적의 안정적인 예측 변수이다.^[213] 성실성이 높은 학생들은 집중적인 학습 전략을 개발하고 더 규율 있고 성취 지향적이기 때문에 네 가지 학습 유형 모두와 양의 연관성을 보인다.

7. 1. 3. 원격 교육

7. 2. 고용

7. 2. 1. 직업과 성격의 적합성

7. 2. 2. 직장 내 성공

7. 3. 연애 관계

7. 4. 정치적 정체성

7. 5. 예측력의 범위

7. 6. 종교성

8. 측정

다섯 가지 성격 특성 요소를 측정하는 여러 가지 방법이 있다. 여기에는 다음이 포함된다:

• 국제 성격 항목 풀(International Personality Item Pool)(IPIP)^[246]
• NEO-PI-R
• 10가지 항목 성격 목록(TIPI)과 5가지 항목 성격 목록(FIPI)은 다섯 가지 성격 특성의 매우 간략한 등급 양식이다.^[247]
• 자기 기술 문장 설문지^[171]
• 어휘 설문지^[248]
• 자기 보고 설문지^[249]
• 상대적 점수를 매기는 다섯 가지 요소 측정법^[250]

8. 1. 측정 방법

9. 비판

5가지 성격 특성 요소 모델(빅 파이브 모델)은 여러 연구에서 비판을 받아왔다.^{[258][259][260][261][262][272][1][263][264]} 캘리포니아 대학교 버클리의 잭 블록(Jack Block)은 이 모델의 대표적인 비판 학자이며, 블록의 비판에 대해 코스타(Costa)와 맥크레이(McCrae)는 빅 파이브 모델을 옹호하는 논문을 발표하기도 했다.^[265]

빅 파이브 모델은 예측 이론으로서 범위에 한계가 있다는 주장이 제기되었다.^[65][263] 측정치가 정상적인 성격 특성 영역의 56%만을 설명할 뿐이며,^[65] 정적인 5대 요인^[269]은 이론에 기반하지 않고, 단순히 자주 함께 묶이는 특정 기술어에 대한 통계적 조사이며, 최적이 아닌 요인 분석 절차를 기반으로 한다는 비판을 받는다.^[1][264]

어휘 가설(개인 차이를 나타내는 언어적 표현에 기반)을 바탕으로 한 빅 파이브 모델은 특히 외향성, 신경증과 관련하여 방법론적 결함을 가진다는 지적이 있다. 사람들의 언어적 평가에는 친사회적 편향이 존재하며, 정서에는 부정성 편향(대부분의 감정이 부정적 정서를 가짐)이 있어 긍정적 감정보다 부정적 감정을 묘사하는 단어가 더 많다. 어휘 가설 실험 결과, 언어의 사회성 편향과 정서의 부정성 편향에 따라 결과 차원이 왜곡되어 모든 평가가 이 두 차원을 중심으로 그룹화된다는 것이 밝혀졌다.^[262] 즉, 빅 파이브 모델의 가장 큰 두 차원은 어휘 접근 방식 때문에 발생한 결과일 수 있다는 것이다.

한편, 여러 언어에 걸친 연구에서 5가지가 아닌 6가지 큰 그룹이 존재한다는 증거가 제시되기도 한다.^[70] 키봄 리와 마이클 애쉬턴은 2004년에 HEXACO 모델을 발표하며, 5가지 요소에 "정직-겸손"을 추가하였다.^[70]

9. 1. 제한된 범위

9. 2. 방법론적 문제

9. 3. 이론적 지위

9. 4. 6가지 요인에 대한 근거

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