쥐라기

3. 지질 시대 구분

쥐라기는 보통 전기, 중기, 후기의 세 시기로 구분되며, 이는 각각 리아스세(Lias), 도거세(Dogger), 말름세(Malm)로 알려져 있다.

"쥐라기"라는 층서학적 용어는 프랑스-스위스 국경을 따라 있는 숲이 우거진 산맥인 쥐라 산맥에서 유래했다. "쥐라(Jura)"는 켈트어족 어근 *jor^cel에서 파생된 고대 갈리아어 ''*iuris''(숲이 우거진 산)가 라틴어 지명 ''Juria''를 거쳐 ''Jura''로 변화한 것이다.

1795년, 독일의 자연 과학자 알렉산더 폰 훔볼트는 쥐라 산맥 내의 탄산염암 퇴적물이 남부 독일의 트라이아스기 시대 무셸칼크와 지질학적으로 구별된다는 것을 인지하고, 1799년에 Jura-Kalkstein^de('쥐라 석회암')이라고 명명했다.^[6]

1829년, 프랑스의 자연 과학자 알렉상드르 브롱니아르는 훔볼트의 "쥐라-석회암"을 영국에 있는 비슷한 시대의 각력암 석회암과 연관시키면서 "terrains jurassiques"라는 문구를 사용하여 "쥐라기"라는 용어를 만들고 출판했다.^[2][6]

1839년, 독일의 지질학자 레오폴트 폰 부흐는 쥐라기를 흑색 주라기, 갈색 주라기, 백색 주라기의 세 가지로 나누었다.^[3] 1822년 윌리엄 코니비어와 윌리엄 필립스는 영국의 흑색 주라기와 같은 시대 지층에 "리아스"라는 용어를 사용했다.

프랑스의 고생물학자 알시드 도르비니는 1842년과 1852년 사이의 논문에서 영국과 프랑스의 암모나이트 화석 등을 기반으로 쥐라기를 10개의 시대로 나누었다. 이 중 7개는 여전히 사용되지만 원래 정의는 유지되지 않았다. 1858년, 독일의 지질학자 프리드리히 아우구스트 폰 켄슈테트는 슈바벤 주라에서 폰 부흐의 세 시리즈를 암모나이트 등으로 정의된 6개의 세분으로 나누었다.

독일의 고생물학자 알베르트 오펠은 1856년에서 1858년 사이의 연구에서 도르비니의 계획을 변경하고 암모나이트를 기반으로 단계를 생층서학 구역으로 세분화했다. 1962년 룩셈부르크에서 열린 쥐라기 학회에서 대부분의 현대 쥐라기 단계가 공식화되었다.^[6]

1962년과 1967년에 개최된 국제 쥐라계 지층서 소위원회는 11개의 절(기) 구분을 확립했다. 쥐라기의 시작은 최초의 암모나이트 출현 지층으로 정의되며, 2010년 오스트리아 쿠호흐(Kuhjoch)가 쥐라계의 국제표준층서단면구역및지점(GSSP)으로 결정되었다.^[318]

3. 1. 쥐라기 시대 구분표

• 헷탕기절(Hettangian): 1864년 스위스 고생물학자 외젠 르네비에(Eugène Renevier)가 프랑스 북동부 에탕주그랑드(Hettange-Grande)를 따라 명명했다.^[6] 헷탕기의 GSSP는 오스트리아 카르벤델 산맥, 북부석회암알프스(Northern Calcareous Alps)의 쿠호흐 고개에 있으며, 2010년에 비준되었다. 헷탕기와 쥬라기 전체의 시작은 쿠호흐의 켄들바흐층(Kendlbach Formation)에서 암모나이트 ''Psiloceras spelae tirolicum''의 최초 출현으로 표시된다.^[5] 쥬라기의 기저는 이전에 알베르트 오펠(Albert Oppel)에 의해 1856~1858년에 ''Psiloceras planorbis''의 최초 출현으로 정의되었지만, 국제 경계에 너무 국지적인 사건으로 여겨져 변경되었다.^[6]

• 시네무리절(Sinemurian): 1842년 알시드 도르비뉴(Alcide d'Orbigny)가 처음 정의하여 과학 문헌에 소개했다. 디종(Dijon) 근처 프랑스 도시 세무르앙오크소아(Semur-en-Auxois)에서 이름을 따왔다. 시네무리안의 GSSP는 왓쳇(Watchet) 동쪽 6km, 서머싯(Somerset), 잉글랜드(England) 이스트 퀀톡스헤드(East Quantoxhead) 마을 북쪽 절벽면의 블루 리아스(Blue Lias) 내에 있으며, 2000년에 비준되었다. 시네무리안의 시작은 암모나이트 ''Vermiceras quantoxense''의 최초 출현으로 정의된다.^[6][7]

• 플리엔스바흐절(Pliensbachian): 1858년 알베르트 오펠은 독일 슈투트가르트 근처 슈바벤알프(Swabian Alb) 첼 운터 아이켈베르크(Zell unter Aichelberg) 지역 마을 플리엔스바흐(Pliensbach)를 따라 명명했다. 플리엔스바흐절 기저의 GSSP는 잉글랜드 요크셔(Yorkshire) 로빈 후드 베이(Robin Hood's Bay) 와인 헤이븐 지점, 레드카 머드스톤층(Redcar Mudstone Formation)에서 발견되며, 2005년에 비준되었다. 플리엔스바흐절의 시작은 암모나이트 ''Bifericeras donovani''의 최초 출현으로 정의된다.^[8]

• 토아르시안절(Toarcian): 프랑스(France) 루아르 계곡(Loire Valley) 소뮈르(Saumur) 남쪽 마을 투아르(Thouars)(라틴어: ''Toarcium'')에서 이름을 따왔다. 1842년 알시드 도르비뉴가 명명했으며, 원래 지역은 투아르 북서쪽 약 2km 지점 브린 석채였다. 토아르시안 기저의 GSSP는 포르투갈 페니셰(Peniche, Portugal)에 있으며, 2014년에 비준되었다. 경계는 아속 ''닥틸리오케라스(Dactylioceras) (''Eodactylites'')'' 암모나이트의 최초 출현으로 정의된다.^[9]

4. 기후와 환경

쥐라기는 전반적으로 현재보다 따뜻하고 습윤한 기후였다. 트라이아스기 말 대멸종 이후, 화산 활동으로 인해 대기 중 이산화탄소 농도가 높아져 온실 효과가 발생했다.^{[319][320][321]} 강수량이 많고 습도가 높아 동물과 식물 모두 종류가 증가하고 대형화되었다. 극지방에는 빙하가 없었으며, 해수면이 높아 얕은 바다가 내륙까지 확장되기도 했다. 중앙 대서양 마그마 지대(Central Atlantic magmatic province)에서의 화산 활동이 쥐라기 기후 변화의 주요 원인으로 추정된다.

쥐라기의 기후는 현재보다 약 정도 더 따뜻했으며, 대기 중 이산화탄소는 현재보다 약 4배 높았을 가능성이 높다.^[44] 그러나 이 시기에 간헐적인 "한파" 간격이 발생하여 따뜻한 온실 기후를 방해하기도 했다.^[44] 극지방 근처에서는 여름이 따뜻하고 겨울은 춥고 때때로 눈이 내리는 숲이 자랐을 가능성이 높다. 눈의 축적을 막는 높은 여름 기온 때문에 빙상은 없었을 가능성이 높지만, 산악 빙하가 있었을 수도 있다.^[46] 초기에서 중기 쥐라기 시대 시베리아 북동부의 드롭스톤과 글렌도나이트는 추운 겨울을 나타낸다.^[45] 심해는 현재보다 약 정도 더 따뜻했을 가능성이 높으며, 산호초는 위도상 북쪽과 남쪽으로 10° 더 퍼져 있었다.^[46]

열대 수렴대는 바다 위에 존재했을 가능성이 높아 적도의 북위 40°와 남위 40° 사이 저위도 지역에 광범위한 사막과 관목 지대가 형성되었다. 열대 우림과 툰드라 생물군계는 드물거나 존재하지 않았을 가능성이 높다.^[46] 쥐라기에는 이전 페름기와 트라이아스기를 특징지었던 팡게아 거대 몬순의 감소도 관찰되었다.^[47] 쥐라기 시대 산불 활동 빈도의 변화는 405 kyr 이심률 주기에 따라 결정되었다.^[48] 팡게아의 분열 덕분에 쥐라기 시대의 수문 순환은 상당히 강화되었다.^[49]

토아르절 해양 무산소 사건(Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event)과 같은 기후 변화 사건이 발생하여 해양 생태계에 큰 영향을 미쳤다. 토아르세 퇴적층 산소결핍 사건(TOAE)은 토아르세절 초기(약 1억 8300만 년 전)에 발생한 광범위한 해양 무산소 사건이다.^[62][63] 이 사건은 전 세계적으로 기록된 흑색 셰일 퇴적,^[64] 탄산염 생성 해양 생물의 멸종 및 붕괴, 그리고 전 지구적 기온의 상승과 관련이 있다.^[65]

5. 생물상

트라이아스기 말의 멸종으로 해양 생물의 20%가 사라졌고, 공룡 이외의 지배파충류, 수궁류가 멸종했으며, 거대한 양서류도 거의 사라졌다.^[319] 멸종에서 살아남은 생물들은 중생대 동안 번성하였다. 쥐라기는 현재보다 따뜻하고 강수량과 습도가 높아 동식물 모두 종류가 증가하고 대형화되었다.

바다에서는 암모나이트와 플랑크톤이 번성하였다. 어류와 어룡, 수장룡과 같은 해양 파충류가 진화하였다. 무척추동물 중에는 새로운 그룹이 등장하기도 했다.

이 시기에 나타난 대표적인 해양 생물은 다음과 같다.

• 익룡 - 디모르포돈(Dimorphodon), 람포링쿠스(Rhamphorhynchus), 프테로닥틸루스(Pterodactylus)
• 어룡 - 이크티오사우루스(Ichthyosaurus), 오프탈모사우루스(Ophthalmosaurus)
• 수장룡 - 플레시오사우루스(Plesiosaurus), 리오플레우로돈(Liopleurodon)

5. 1. 육상 생물

• 공룡 - 브라키오사우루스(Brachiosaurus), 디플로도쿠스(Diplodocus), 아파토사우루스(Apatosaurus), 알로사우루스(Allosaurus), 딜로포사우루스(Dilophosaurus), 케라토사우루스(Ceratosaurus), 드리오사우루스(Dryosaurus), 스테고사우루스(Stegosaurus), 켄트로사우루스(Kentrosaurus), 다켄트루루스(Dacentrurus)
• 조류 - 시조새
• 곤충 - 이아목, 새털이아목, 기생벌, 흰개미목

5. 2. 해양 생물

6. 고지리와 판 구조 운동

전기 쥐라기 동안 초대륙 판게아는 북쪽의 로라시아와 남쪽의 곤드와나로 분열되기 시작했다. 그러나 두 대륙은 완전히 분리되지 않았고, 가까운 거리를 유지했다. 쥐라기의 북대서양은 현재보다 좁았고, 남대서양은 곤드와나가 분열되기 시작하는 백악기까지 열리지 않았다. 테티스해는 닫히고 새로운 테티스 해분이 형성되었다.

7. 쥐라기와 관련된 문화 콘텐츠

SF 소설 및 이를 바탕으로 한 영화인 『쥬라기 공원』의 이름은 이 쥐라기(쥐라紀)에서 유래했으며, 직역하면 '쥐라기 공원'이 된다. 이 영화의 중국어 제목인 『侏羅紀公園』 역시 직역을 사용하고 있다. 그러나 실제로 등장하는 공룡들은 대부분 쥐라기보다 새로운 백악기의 것이다.

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_[58] 간행물 Warm Middle Jurassic–Early Cretaceous high-latitude sea-surface temperatures from the Southern Ocean https://cp.copernicu[...] 2023-04-08
_[59] 간행물 Ice age at the Middle–Late Jurassic transition? https://www.scienced[...] 2023-01-08
_[60] 간행물 The palaeolatitudinal distribution of fossil wood genera as a proxy for European Jurassic terrestrial climate https://www.scienced[...] 2023-06-10
_[61] 간행물 Climate changes as recorded in stable carbon isotopic compositions of the Late Jurassic marine sedimentary succession in the Qiangtang Basin, Northern Tibet https://www.scienced[...] 2023-01-08
_[62] 간행물 High-resolution carbon isotope records of the Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event (Early Jurassic) from North America and implications for the global drivers of the Toarcian carbon cycle 2017-02-01
_[63] 간행물 Population response during an Oceanic Anoxic Event: The case of Posidonotis (Bivalvia) from the Lower Jurassic of the Neuquén Basin, Argentina https://www.scienced[...] 2022-11-23
_[64] 간행물 The end-Triassic and Early Jurassic mass extinction records in the British Isles https://www.scienced[...] 2022-11-23
_[65] 간행물 The Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event: where do we stand? https://sp.lyellcoll[...] 2021-09-22
_[66] 간행물 Sedimentary organic matter and early Toarcian environmental changes in the Lusitanian Basin (Portugal) https://www.scienced[...] 2022-09-27
_[67] 간행물
_[71] 논문 Stratigraphic and environmental control on marine benthic community change through the early Toarcian extinction event (Iberian Range, Spain) https://www.scienced[...] 2019-06-15
_[72] 논문 The Pliensbachian–Toarcian (Early Jurassic) extinction, a global multi-phased event https://linkinghub.e[...] 2013-09-01
_[73] 논문 Demise of the last two spire-bearing brachiopod orders (Spiriferinida and Athyridida) at the Toarcian (Early Jurassic) extinction event https://www.scienced[...] 2016-09-01
_[74] 논문 Changes in brachiopod body size prior to the Early Toarcian (Jurassic) Mass Extinction https://www.scienced[...] 2018-10-01
_[75] 논문 Effects of the early Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event on ichthyosaur body size and faunal composition in the Southwest German Basin http://dx.doi.org/10[...] 2015-11-06
_[76] 논문 Carbon sequestration in an expanded lake system during the Toarcian oceanic anoxic event http://www.nature.co[...] 2017-02-01
_[77] 논문 Ocean acidification during the early Toarcian extinction event: Evidence from boron isotopes in brachiopods 2020-12-01
_[78] 논문 Carbonate platform evidence of ocean acidification at the onset of the early Toarcian oceanic anoxic event https://linkinghub.e[...] 2012-12-01
_[79] 논문 Ocean acidification and photic-zone anoxia at the Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event: Insights from the Adriatic Carbonate Platform https://onlinelibrar[...] 2020-09-23
_[80] 논문 Enhanced phosphorus recycling during past oceanic anoxia amplified by low rates of apatite authigenesis 2022-07-01
_[81] 논문 Sea level regulated tetrapod diversity dynamics through the Jurassic/Cretaceous interval 2016-09-02
_[82] 논문 End-Triassic nonmarine biotic events 2015-10-01
_[83] 논문 An explanation for conflicting records of Triassic–Jurassic plant diversity 2010-08-31
_[84] 논문 Changes in terrestrial floras at the Triassic-Jurassic Boundary in Europe https://linkinghub.e[...] 2017-08-01
_[85] 논문 Relictual Lepidopteris (Peltaspermales) from the Early Jurassic Cañadón Asfalto Formation, Patagonia, Argentina https://www.journals[...] 2019-07-01
_[86] 논문 Polar Regions of the Mesozoic–Paleogene Greenhouse World as Refugia for Relict Plant Groups https://linkinghub.e[...] Elsevier 2018
_[87] 논문 Additional evidence for the Mesozoic diversification of conifers: Pollen cone of Chimaerostrobus minutus gen. et sp. nov. (Coniferales), from the Lower Jurassic of Antarctica 2018-10-01
_[88] 논문 An overview of extant conifer evolution from the perspective of the fossil record http://doi.wiley.com[...] 2018-09-01
_[89] 논문 Diversification of crown group Araucaria : the role of Araucaria famii sp. nov. in the Late Cretaceous (Campanian) radiation of Araucariaceae in the Northern Hemisphere 2020-07-01
_[90] 논문 Phylogenetic Analysis of Araucariaceae: Integrating Molecules, Morphology, and Fossils https://www.journals[...] 2013-10-01
_[91] 논문 Pararaucaria carrii sp. nov., Anatomically Preserved Evidence for the Conifer Family Cheirolepidiaceae in the Northern Hemisphere https://www.journals[...] 2013-03-01
_[92] 논문 A new genus of the Cupressaceae (sensu lato) from the Jurassic of Patagonia: Implications for conifer megasporangiate cone homologies https://linkinghub.e[...] 2008-09-01
_[93] 논문 Reconstructing the Early Evolution of the Cupressaceae: A Whole-Plant Description of a New Austrohamia Species from the Cañadón Asfalto Formation (Early Jurassic), Argentina https://www.journals[...] 2019-10-01
_[94] 논문 Compressions of Sequoia (Cupressaceae sensu lato) from the Middle Jurassic of Daohugou, Ningcheng, Inner Mongolia, China https://link.springe[...] 2020
_[95] 논문 New species of the genus Schizolepidopsis (conifers) from the Albian of the Russian high Arctic and geological history of the genus https://linkinghub.e[...] 2019-05-01
_[96] 논문 Ovulate Cones of Schizolepidopsis ediae sp. nov. Provide Insights into the Evolution of Pinaceae 2021-05-10
_[97] 논문 The seed cone Eathiestrobus gen. nov.: Fossil evidence for a Jurassic origin of Pinaceae 2012-04-01
_[98] 논문 A new species of Pityostrobus (Pinaceae) from the Cretaceous of California: moving towards understanding the Cretaceous radiation of Pinaceae https://www.tandfonl[...] 2017-01-02
_[99] 논문 Middle–Late Jurassic fossils from northeastern China reveal morphological stasis in the catkin-yew 2020-06-18
_[100] 논문 In search of lost time: tracing the fossil diversity of Podocarpaceae through the ages https://academic.oup[...] 2023-08-04
_[101] 논문 The rise and demise of Podozamites in east Asia—An extinct conifer life style http://www.sciencedi[...] 2016-12-15
_[102] 논문 An overview of fossil Ginkgoales https://linkinghub.e[...] 2009-03-01
_[103] 논문 Revision of the genus Grenana Samylina from the Middle Jurassic of Angren, Uzbekistan https://linkinghub.e[...] 2013-10-01
_[104] 논문 Middle-Late Jurassic fossils from Northeast China confirm the affiliation of Umaltolepis seed-bearing structures and Pseudotorellia leaves https://linkinghub.e[...] 2022-11-01
_[106] 논문 Cycadophytes https://linkinghub.e[...] Elsevier 2020-12-12
_[107] 논문 Divaricate growth habit in Williamsoniaceae (Bennettitales): unravelling the ecology of a key Mesozoic plant group https://doi.org/10.1[...] 2014-06-01
_[108] 논문 The evolutionary convergence of mid-Mesozoic lacewings and Cenozoic butterflies 2016-02-10
_[109] 논문 A Jurassic dipteran pollinator with an extremely long proboscis https://linkinghub.e[...] 2019-07-01
_[110] 논문 Beetle Pollination of Cycads in the Mesozoic 2018-09-01
_[111] 논문 Eobowenia gen. nov. from the Early Cretaceous of Patagonia: indication for an early divergence of Bowenia? 2017-12-01
_[112] 논문 Molecular signatures of fossil leaves provide unexpected new evidence for extinct plant relationships https://www.nature.c[...] 2017-08-01
_[113] 논문 Reconciling fossils with phylogenies reveals the origin and macroevolutionary processes explaining the global cycad biodiversity 2023-06-11
_[114] 논문 Hunting the Snark: the flawed search for mythical Jurassic angiosperms https://academic.oup[...] 2020-01-01
_[115] 논문 Cutting the long branches: Consilience as a path to unearth the evolutionary history of Gnetales 2022-12-14
_[116] 논문 Southern Hemisphere Caytoniales: vegetative and reproductive remains from the Lonco Trapial Formation (Lower Jurassic), Patagonia https://www.tandfonl[...] 2019-09-02
_[117] 논문 Komlopteris: A persistent lineage of post-Triassic corystosperms in Gondwana 2023-10-01
_[118] 논문 Did the Czekanowskiales already exist in the late Permian? 2019-09-01
_[119] 논문 Gymnosperms with obscure affinities https://linkinghub.e[...] Elsevier 2020-12-13
_[120] 논문 An introductory report on the biodiversity of Middle Jurassic Phoenicopsis (Czekanowskiales) from the Ordos Basin, China https://linkinghub.e[...] 2015-11-01
_[121] 간행물 Triassic-Jurassic pteridosperms of Australasia: speciation, diversity and decline 2015
_[122] 논문 Biogeography of Mesozoic leptosporangiate ferns related to extant ferns http://dx.doi.org/10[...] 2001-04-01
_[123] 논문 Permineralized osmundaceous and gleicheniaceous ferns from the Jurassic of Inner Mongolia, NE China https://doi.org/10.1[...] 2018-03-01
_[124] 논문 Heinrichsia cheilanthoides gen. et sp. nov., a fossil fern in the family Pteridaceae (Polypodiales) from the Cretaceous amber forests of Myanmar 2019-07-01
_[125] 논문 Re-evaluation of the systematic position of the Jurassic–Early Cretaceous fern genus Coniopteris https://linkinghub.e[...] 2020-01-01
_[126] 논문 Global biogeography of scaly tree ferns (Cyatheaceae): evidence for Gondwanan vicariance and limited transoceanic dispersal 2014-02-01
_[127] 논문 A filmy fern from the Upper Triassic of North Carolina (USA) 2001-09-01
_[128] 논문 Reconstruction and Phylogenetic Significance of a New Equisetum Linnaeus Species from the Lower Jurassic of Cerro Bayo (Chubut Province, Argentina) http://www.bioone.or[...] 2015-02-01
_[129] 간행물 Morphology of Equisetum laterale Phillips, 1829, and E. bryanii sp. nov. from the Mesozoic of south‐eastern Queensland 1968
_[130] 논문 Origin of Equisetum : Evolution of horsetails (Equisetales) within the major euphyllophyte clade Sphenopsida 2018-08-01
_[131] 논문 Equisetum thermale sp. nov. (Equisetales) from the Jurassic San Agustín hot spring deposit, Patagonia: Anatomy, paleoecology, and inferred paleoecophysiology 2011
_[132] 논문 Phylogenomics indicates the "living fossil" Isoetes diversified in the Cenozoic 2020-06-18
_[133] 논문 How to rely on the unreliable: Examples from Mesozoic bryophytes of Transbaikalia 2019-07-01
_[134] 논문 Heinrichsiella patagonica gen. et sp. nov.: A Permineralized Acrocarpous Moss from the Jurassic of Patagonia http://dx.doi.org/10[...] 2019-10-01
_[135] 논문 Morphology and microstructure of Pellites hamiensis nov. sp., a Middle Jurassic liverwort from northwestern China and its evolutionary significance https://linkinghub.e[...] 2020-08-01
_[136] 논문 A new thalloid liverwort: Pallaviciniites sandaolingensis sp. nov. from the Middle Jurassic of Turpan–Hami Basin, NW China http://link.springer[...] 2016-06-01
_[137] 논문 Ricciopsis sandaolingensis sp. nov., a new fossil bryophyte from the Middle Jurassic Xishanyao Formation in the Turpan-Hami Basin, Xinjiang, Northwest China 2019
_[138] 논문 Archosauromorph extinction selectivity during the Triassic-Jurassic mass extinction 2019-03-01
_[139] 논문 Triassic–Jurassic mass extinction as trigger for the Mesozoic radiation of crocodylomorphs 2013-06-23
_[140] 논문 Repeated Evolution of Herbivorous Crocodyliforms during the Age of Dinosaurs 2019-07-01
_[141] 논문 Ecological opportunity and the rise and fall of crocodylomorph evolutionary innovation 2021-03-31
_[142] 논문 The integument of pelagic crocodylomorphs (Thalattosuchia: Metriorhynchidae) https://palaeo-elect[...] 2021-07-05
_[143] 논문 Early Crocodylomorpha http://sp.lyellcolle[...] 2013
_[144] 논문 Evolutionary structure and timing of major habitat shifts in Crocodylomorpha 2019-01-24
_[145] 논문 ''Razanandrongobe sakalavae'', a gigantic mesoeucrocodylian from the Middle Jurassic of Madagascar, is the oldest known notosuchian
_[146] 논문 A Review of the Fossil Record of Basal Mesozoic Turtles http://doc.rero.ch/r[...] 2017-04
_[147] 논문 New remains of Condorchelys antiqua (Testudinata) from the Early-Middle Jurassic of Patagonia: anatomy, phylogeny, and paedomorphosis in the early evolution of turtles https://www.tandfonl[...] 2018-07-04
_[148] 논문 The shell and pelvic anatomy of the Late Jurassic turtle Platychelys oberndorferi based on material from Solothurn, Switzerland http://link.springer[...] 2017-08
_[149] 논문 A new phylogenetic hypothesis of turtles with implications for the timing and number of evolutionary transitions to marine lifestyles in the group https://onlinelibrar[...] 2019-01
_[150] 논문 A Review of the Fossil Record of Turtles of the Clade Thalassochelydia http://www.bioone.or[...] 2017-10
_[151] 논문 Evolutionary origins of the prolonged extant squamate radiation 2022-11-29
_[152] 논문 Macroevolutionary patterns in Rhynchocephalia: is the tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) a living fossil? 2017
_[153] 논문 The Origin, Early History and Diversification of Lepidosauromorph Reptiles http://link.springer[...] Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2021-01-07
_[154] 논문 Interrogating Genomic-Scale Data for Squamata (Lizards, Snakes, and Amphisbaenians) Shows no Support for Key Traditional Morphological Relationships https://academic.oup[...] 2020-05-01
_[155] 논문 Lepidosaurian diversity in the Mesozoic–Palaeogene: the potential roles of sampling biases and environmental drivers 2018-03-21
_[156] 논문 Crown group lizards (Reptilia, Squamata) from the Middle Jurassic of the British Isles 1998
_[157] 논문 A new Jurassic lizard from China 2019-09-13
_[158] 논문 Osteology, phylogeny, and functional morphology of two Jurassic lizard species and the early evolution of scansoriality in geckoes 2016-09
_[159] 논문 An Enigmatic Miniaturized and Attenuate Whole Lizard from the Mid-Cretaceous Amber of Myanmar https://bioone.org/j[...] 2018-11-01
_[160] 논문 New information on the Jurassic lepidosauromorph Marmoretta oxoniensis https://onlinelibrar[...] 2021-09
_[161] 논문 Choristoderes and the freshwater assemblages of Laurasia http://revistas.ucm.[...] 2010
_[162] 논문 The first record of a nearly complete choristodere (Reptilia: Diapsida) from the Upper Jurassic of Hebei Province, People's Republic of China https://www.tandfonl[...] 2019-06-18
_[163] 논문 Resetting the evolution of marine reptiles at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary 2011-05-17
_[164] 논문 Early high rates and disparity in the evolution of ichthyosaurs 2020-02-13
_[165] 논문 Refining the marine reptile turnover at the Early–Middle Jurassic transition 2021-02-22
_[166] 논문 A Triassic plesiosaurian skeleton and bone histology inform on evolution of a unique body plan 2017-12-01
_[167] 논문 High Diversity, Low Disparity and Small Body Size in Plesiosaurs (Reptilia, Sauropterygia) from the Triassic–Jurassic Boundary 2012-03-16
_[168] 논문 The evolution of plesiosaur and pliosaur morphotypes in the Plesiosauria (Reptilia: Sauropterygia) https://www.cambridg[...] 2002
_[169] 논문 A Giant Pliosaurid Skull from the Late Jurassic of England 2013-05-31
_[170] 논문 The first record of freshwater plesiosaurian from the Middle Jurassic of Gansu, NW China, with its implications to the local palaeobiogeography 2019-08-13
_[171] 논문 A revision of Australia's Jurassic plesiosaurs 2012-08-02
_[172] 논문 The taxonomy and systematics of Parapsicephalus purdoni (Reptilia: Pterosauria) from the Lower Jurassic Whitby Mudstone Formation, Whitby, U.K https://www.tandfonl[...] 2017-11-17
_[173] 논문 Pterosaur dietary hypotheses: a review of ideas and approaches: Pterosaur dietary hypotheses 2018-11
_[174] 논문 The first 50 Myr of dinosaur evolution: macroevolutionary pattern and morphological disparity 2008-12-23
_[175] 논문 Superiority, Competition, and Opportunism in the Evolutionary Radiation of Dinosaurs http://palaeo.gly.br[...] 2012-01-14
_[176] 논문 Comment on 'A dinosaur missing-link? Chilesaurus and the early evolution of ornithischian dinosaurs' 2018-03-28
_[177] 논문 A Triassic averostran-line theropod from Switzerland and the early evolution of dinosaurs 2019-08-01
_[178] 논문 The oldest ceratosaurian (Dinosauria: Theropoda), from the Lower Jurassic of Italy, sheds light on the evolution of the three-fingered hand of birds 2018-12-19
_[179] 논문 Extreme Ontogenetic Changes in a Ceratosaurian Theropod 2017-01-01
_[180] 논문 Herbivorous ecomorphology and specialization patterns in theropod dinosaur evolution 2011-01-04
_[181] 논문 A description of Megalosaurus bucklandii (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from the Bathonian of the UK and the relationships of Middle Jurassic theropods 2010-01-01
_[182] 논문 Probable basal allosauroid from the early Middle Jurassic Cañadón Asfalto Formation of Argentina highlights phylogenetic uncertainty in tetanuran theropod dinosaurs 2019-12-11
_[183] 논문 Cranial osteology and phylogenetic position of the theropod dinosaur ''Proceratosaurus'' bradleyi(Woodward, 1910) from the Middle Jurassic of England
_[184] 논문 A new alvarezsaurian theropod from the Upper Jurassic Shishugou Formation of western China 2019-01-01
_[185] 논문 Alvarezsaurid osteology: new data on cranial anatomy https://www.tandfonl[...] 2021-06-02
_[186] 논문 A new Jurassic scansoriopterygid and the loss of membranous wings in theropod dinosaurs https://www.nature.c[...] 2019-05-01
_[187] 논문 A new paravian dinosaur from the Late Jurassic of North America supports a late acquisition of avian flight 2019-07-10
_[188] 논문 The Origin of Birds: Current Consensus, Controversy, and the Occurrence of Feathers https://doi.org/10.1[...] Springer International Publishing 2021-01-05
_[189] 논문 Scelidosaurus harrisonii (Dinosauria: Ornithischia) from the Early Jurassic of Dorset, England: biology and phylogenetic relationships https://academic.oup[...] 2021-01-01
_[190] 논문 Integumentary Structures in Kulindadromeus zabaikalicus, a Basal Neornithischian Dinosaur from the Jurassic of Siberia https://doi.org/10.1[...] Springer International Publishing 2021-01-05
_[191] 논문 Phylogeny of Basal Iguanodonts (Dinosauria: Ornithischia): An Update 2012-05-22
_[192] 논문 A New Taxon of Basal Ceratopsian from China and the Early Evolution of Ceratopsia 2015-12-09
_[193] 논문 Biology of the sauropod dinosaurs: the evolution of gigantism 2011-02-01
_[194] 논문 Extinction of herbivorous dinosaurs linked to Early Jurassic global warming event 2020-11-25
_[195] 논문 A Giant Dinosaur from the Earliest Jurassic of South Africa and the Transition to Quadrupedality in Early Sauropodomorphs 2018-10-08
_[196] 논문 Stratigraphy of the Vulcanodon type locality and its implications for regional correlations within the Karoo Supergroup https://linkinghub.e[...] 2018-01-01
_[197] 논문 Origin and evolution of turiasaur dinosaurs set by means of a new 'rosetta' specimen from Spain https://academic.oup[...] 2021-01-01
_[198] 논문 The second mamenchisaurid dinosaur from the Middle Jurassic of Eastern China https://www.tandfonl[...] 2020-05-27
_[199] 논문 Re-examination of Dashanpusaurus dongi (Sauropoda: Macronaria) supports an early Middle Jurassic global distribution of neosauropod dinosaurs https://www.scienced[...] 2022-11-14
_[200] 논문 Late Triassic Terrestrial Tetrapods: Biostratigraphy, Biochronology and Biotic Events http://link.springer[...] Springer International Publishing 2021-04-25
_[201] 논문 Amphibians from the Middle Jurassic Balabansai Svita in the Fergana Depression, Kyrgyzstan (Central Asia) 2008-03-01
_[202] 논문 The last Labyrinthodont? A new brachyopoid (Amphibia, Temnospondyli) from the early Jurassic Evergreen formation of Queensland, Australia https://royalsociety[...] 1983-09-13
_[203] 논문 The evolution of jumping in frogs: Morphological evidence for the basal anuran locomotor condition and the radiation of locomotor systems in crown group anurans 2011-02-01
_[204] 논문 A new species of Notobatrachus (Amphibia, Salientia) from the Middle Jurassic of northwestern Patagonia http://dx.doi.org/10[...] 2008-03-01
_[205] 논문 An updated paleontological timetree of lissamphibians, with comments on the anatomy of Jurassic crown-group salamanders (Urodela) http://www.tandfonli[...] 2014-07-04
_[206] 논문 A Triassic stem-salamander from Kyrgyzstan and the origin of salamanders 2020-05-26
_[207] 논문 Long bone histology of the stem salamander Kokartus honorarius (Amphibia: Caudata) from the Middle Jurassic of Kyrgyzstan 2015-04-01
_[208] 논문 A new stem hynobiid salamander (Urodela, Cryptobranchoidea) from the Upper Jurassic (Oxfordian) of Liaoning Province, China https://www.tandfonl[...] 2019-03-04
_[209] 논문 Late Jurassic salamandroid from western Liaoning, China 2012-04-10
_[210] 논문 A New Basal Salamandroid (Amphibia, Urodela) from the Late Jurassic of Qinglong, Hebei Province, China 2016-05-04
_[211] 논문 A Late Jurassic salamander (Amphibia: Caudata) from the Morrison Formation of North America
_[212] 논문 A review of the fossil record of caecilians (Lissamphibia: Gymnophionomorpha) with comments on its use to calibrate molecular timetrees 2020-11-03
_[213] 논문 Guelb el Ahmar (Bathonian, Anoual Syncline, eastern Morocco): First continental flora and fauna including mammals from the Middle Jurassic of Africa http://doc.rero.ch/r[...] 2016-01
_[214] 논문 Mammalian Evolution: A Jurassic Spark 2015-08-31
_[215] 논문 A swimming mammaliaform from the Middle Jurassic and ecomorphological diversification of early mammals http://doc.rero.ch/r[...]
_[216] 논문 New gliding mammaliaforms from the Jurassic https://www.nature.c[...] 2017-08
_[217] 논문 Corrigendum: A Mesozoic gliding mammal from northeastern China
_[218] 논문 A Late Jurassic Digging Mammal and Early Mammalian Diversification
_[219] 논문 Dual origin of tribosphenic mammals http://www.nature.co[...] 2001-01
_[220] 논문 New allotherian specimens from the Middle Jurassic Woodeaton Quarry (Oxfordshire) and implications for haramiyidan diversity and phylogeny https://www.tandfonl[...] 2022-12-31
_[221] 논문 Evidence for a Mid-Jurassic Adaptive Radiation in Mammals https://www.scienced[...] 2024-11-04
_[222] 논문 A Jurassic eutherian mammal and divergence of marsupials and placentals http://211.144.68.84[...] 2011-08-25
_[223] 논문 Tip dating supports novel resolutions of controversial relationships among early mammals 2020-06-10
_[224] 논문 The radiation of cynodonts and the ground plan of mammalian morphological diversity 2013-10-22
_[225] 서적 The Late Triassic Record of Cynodonts: Time of Innovations in the Mammalian Lineage http://link.springer[...] Springer International Publishing 2021-05-24
_[226] 논문 The asynchronous disappearance of conodonts: New constraints from Triassic-Jurassic boundary sections in the Tethys and Panthalassa https://linkinghub.e[...] 2020-04
_[227] 논문 Global climate changes account for the main trends of conodont diversity but not for their final demise https://linkinghub.e[...] 2020-12
_[228] 논문 The rise of predation in Jurassic lampreys 2023-10-31
_[229] 논문 Evolutionary history of lungfishes with a new phylogeny of post-Devonian genera 2017-04
_[230] 논문 The biogeography of extant lungfishes traces the breakup of Gondwana https://onlinelibrar[...] 2023-07
_[231] 논문 Phylogeny and evolutionary history of mawsoniid coelacanths http://www.kmnh.jp/w[...]
_[232] 논문 A new coelacanth (Actinistia, Sarcopterygii) from the Jurassic of France, and the question of the closest relative fossil to Latimeria http://www.tandfonli[...] 2005-09-30
_[233] 논문 Revision of two relic actinopterygians from the Middle or Upper Jurassic Karabastau Formation, Karatau Range, Kazakhstan http://www.tandfonli[...] 2014-07-03
_[234] 논문 Redescription of † Yanosteus longidorsalis Jin et al., (Chondrostei, Acipenseriformes, †Peipiaosteidae) from the Early Cretaceous of China https://www.cambridg[...] 2021-01
_[235] 논문 A New Sinamiin Fish (Actinopterygii) from the Early Cretaceous of Thailand: Implications on the Evolutionary History of the Amiid Lineage 2023-03-27
_[236] 논문 History of two lineages: Comparative analysis of the fossil record in Amiiformes and Pycnodontiformes (Osteischtyes, Actinopterygii) https://ojs.uv.es/in[...] 2020-07-19
_[237] 논문 Earliest known lepisosteoid extends the range of anatomically modern gars to the Late Jurassic 2017-12
_[238] 서적 Mesozoic halecostomes and the early radiation of teleosts Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil
_[239] 논문 A specimen of Paralycoptera Chang & Chou 1977 (Teleostei: Osteoglossoidei) from Hong Kong (China) with a potential Late Jurassic age that extends the temporal and geographical range of the genus 2015-03-26
_[240] 서적 Growth, age and size of the Jurassic pachycormid Leedsichthys problematicus (Osteichthyes: Actinopterygii) Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil
_[241] 논문 Hybodont sharks of the English Bathonian and Callovian (Middle Jurassic) 2008-01-17
_[242] 논문 Extinction and dawn of the modern world in the Carnian (Late Triassic) 2020-09
_[243] 논문 Diversification of the Neoselachii (Chondrichthyes) during the Jurassic and Cretaceous http://www.bioone.or[...] 2006-03
_[244] 논문 A new Pliensbachian elasmobranch (Vertebrata, Chondrichthyes) assemblage from Europe, and its contribution to the understanding of late Early Jurassic elasmobranch diversity and distributional patterns 2019-12-01
_[245] 논문 The Late Jurassic ray Kimmerobatis etchesi gen. et sp. nov. and the Jurassic radiation of the Batoidea https://linkinghub.e[...] 2019-06
_[246] 논문 A new Jurassic cow shark (Chondrichthyes, Hexanchiformes) with comments on Jurassic hexanchiform systematics 2011-12-01
_[247] 논문 First occurrence of the orectolobiform shark Akaimia in the Oxford Clay Formation (Jurassic, Callovian) of England https://linkinghub.e[...] 2016-08-01
_[248] 논문 Evolutionary relationships among bullhead sharks (Chondrichthyes, Heterodontiformes) https://onlinelibrar[...] 2020-08-01
_[249] 논문 Evolutionary trends of the conserved neurocranium shape in angel sharks (Squatiniformes, Elasmobranchii) 2020-07-28
_[250] 논문 A new genus and species of extinct ground shark, †Diprosopovenator hilperti, gen. et sp. nov. (Carcharhiniformes, †Pseudoscyliorhinidae, fam. nov.), from the Upper Cretaceous of Germany 2019-03-04
_[251] 논문 A Late Jurassic freshwater shark assemblage (Chondrichthyes, Hybodontiformes) from the southern Junggar Basin, Xinjiang, Northwest China http://link.springer[...] 2010-09-01
_[252] 논문 A New Callorhinchid Genus (Holocephali, Chimaeroidei) from the Early Bajocian of Ottange-Rumelange, on the Luxembourg-French Border https://bioone.org/j[...] 2019-07-02
_[253] 논문 A new myriacanthid holocephalian from the Early Jurassic of Denmark https://2dgf.dk/publ[...] 2017-11-14
_[254] 서적 The Fossil History of Insect Diversity John Wiley & Sons, Ltd 2018-05-23
_[255] 논문 Diversification of insects since the Devonian: a new approach based on morphological disparity of mouthparts 2018-12-01
_[256] 논문 The evolution and genomic basis of beetle diversity 2019-12-03
_[257] 논문 The evolutionary history of Coleoptera (Insecta) in the late Palaeozoic and the Mesozoic 2024-02-13
_[258] 논문 Phylogenomic Data Yield New and Robust Insights into the Phylogeny and Evolution of Weevils https://academic.oup[...] 2018-04-01
_[259] 논문 Early Jurassic orthopteran insects from the southern Junggar Basin, NW China, with discussion of biodiversity changes of Orthoptera across the Triassic–Jurassic boundary https://www.lyellcol[...] 2024-06-22
_[260] 논문 Reviving the sound of a 150-year-old insect: The bioacoustics of Prophalangopsis obscura (Ensifera: Hagloidea) 2022-08-10
_[261] 논문 A Triassic-Jurassic window into the evolution of Lepidoptera 2018-01-01
_[262] 논문 How to date a dragonfly: Fossil calibrations for odonates http://palaeo-electr[...] 2016-01-01
_[263] 논문 Mesozoic giant fleas from northeastern China (Siphonaptera): Taxonomy and implications for palaeodiversity 2013-05-01
_[264] 논문 New Transitional Fleas from China Highlighting Diversity of Early Cretaceous Ectoparasitic Insects 2013-07-01
_[265] 서적 The History of Insect Parasitism and the Mid-Mesozoic Parasitoid Revolution https://link.springe[...] Springer International Publishing 2021-12-02
_[266] 논문 Early specializations for mimicry and defense in a Jurassic stick insect 2020-04-02
_[267] 논문 Mantophasmatodea now in the Jurassic https://www.research[...] 2008-06-11
_[268] 논문 Oldest webspinners from the Middle Jurassic of Inner Mongolia, China (Insecta: Embiodea) 2009-08-01
_[269] 논문 Phylogeny and Evolution of Neuropterida: Where Have Wings of Lace Taken Us? https://www.annualre[...] 2018-01-07
_[270] 논문 Jurassic Park approached: a coccid from Kimmeridgian cheirolepidiacean Aintourine Lebanese amber
_[271] 논문 An Oribatid Mite (arachnida: Acari) from the Oxford Clay (jurassic: Upper Callovian) of South Cave Station Quarry, Yorkshire, Uk https://onlinelibrar[...] 2008-01-01
_[272] 논문 An Early Jurassic oribatid mite from southern Sweden https://www.tandfonl[...] 1978-03-01
_[273] 논문 The fossil record of spiders revisited: implications for calibrating trees and evidence for a major faunal turnover since the Mesozoic https://onlinelibrar[...] 2020-02-01
_[274] 논문 The first fossil spider (Araneae: Palpimanoidea) from the Lower Jurassic (Grimmen, Germany)
_[275] 논문 A giant spider from the Jurassic of China reveals greater diversity of the orbicularian stem group
_[276] 논문 Reinterpreting the morphology of the Jurassic scorpion Liassoscorpionides https://linkinghub.e[...] 2007-06-01
_[277] 논문 Harvestmen (Arachnida: Opiliones) from the Middle Jurassic of China http://link.springer[...] 2009-08-01
_[278] 논문 An exquisitely preserved harvestman (Arthropoda, Arachnida, Opiliones) from the Middle Jurassic of China http://link.springer[...] 2012-03-01
_[279] 논문
_[281] 논문 The influence of reefs on the rise of Mesozoic marine crustaceans https://pubs.geoscie[...] 2013-11-01
_[282] 논문 Palaeobiogeography of early planktonic foraminifera https://pubs.geoscie[...] 2009-01-01
_[283] 논문 The Bajocian (Middle Jurassic): A key interval in the early Mesozoic phytoplankton radiation http://www.sciencedi[...] 2018-05-01
_[284] 논문 Microconchids (Tentaculita) from the Middle Jurassic of Poland http://www.geology.c[...] 2009-12-31
_[285] 논문 Thai amber: insights into early diatom history? 2020
_[286] 논문 Diversity dynamics of post-Palaeozoic crinoids – in quest of the factors affecting crinoid macroevolution https://onlinelibrar[...] 2016-04-00
_[287] 논문 Dynamic evolutionary change in post-Paleozoic echinoids and the importance of scale when interpreting changes in rates of evolution 2015-03-24
_[288] 논문 Eocarcinus praecursor Withers, 1932 (Malacostraca, Decapoda, Meiura) is a stem group brachyuran 2020-11-00
_[289] 논문 The Oldest Brachyura (Decapoda: Homolodromioidea: Glaessneropsoidea) Known to Date (Jurassic) 2010-05-01
_[290] 논문 New hypotheses concerning the earliest brachyurans (Crustacea, Decapoda, Brachyura) 2019-11-14
_[291] 논문 New Early Jurassic hermit crabs from Germany and France 2013-01-01
_[292] 논문 A hermit crab preserved inside an ammonite shell from the Upper Jurassic of central Russia: Implications to ammonoid palaeoecology 2020-01-00
_[293] 논문 The Emergence of Lobsters: Phylogenetic Relationships, Morphological Evolution and Divergence Time Comparisons of an Ancient Group (Decapoda: Achelata, Astacidea, Glypheidea, Polychelida) https://academic.oup[...] 2014-07-01
_[294] 논문 The evolutionary diversity of barnacles, with an updated classification of fossil and living forms 2021-02-25
_[295] 논문 A new phosphatic-shelled cirripede (Crustacea, Thoracica) from the Lower Jurassic (Toarcian) of Germany – the oldest epiplanktonic barnacle 2016-01-00
_[296] 논문 Demise of the last two spire-bearing brachiopod orders (Spiriferinida and Athyridida) at the Toarcian (Early Jurassic) extinction event https://linkinghub.e[...] 2016-09-00
_[297] 논문 Mass extinctions and clade extinctions in the history of brachiopods: Brief review and a post-Paleozoic case study https://riviste.unim[...] 2020-12-25
_[298] 논문 The role of bioturbation-driven substrate disturbance in the Mesozoic brachiopod decline 2020-11-23
_[299] 논문 Bryozoans in transition: The depauperate and patchy Jurassic biota https://linkinghub.e[...] 2008-06-00
_[300] 논문 Gastropods underwent a major taxonomic turnover during the end-Triassic marine mass extinction event 2022-11-02
_[301] 논문 The fossil record of freshwater Gastropoda – a global review 2024-02-00
_[302] 논문 Coping between crises: Early Triassic–early Jurassic bivalve diversity dynamics https://linkinghub.e[...] 2011-11-00
_[303] 논문 The Effect of Taxonomic Corrections on Phanerozoic Generic Richness Trends in Marine Bivalves with a Discussion on the Clade's Overall History https://www.cambridg[...] 2016-02-00
_[304] 논문 Paleobiogeographic distribution of rudist bivalves (Hippuritida) in the Oxfordian–early Aptian (Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous) https://linkinghub.e[...] 2020-04-00
_[305] 논문 The evolution and geography of Jurassic ammonoids https://linkinghub.e[...] 2008-01-00
_[306] 논문 Evolutionary Rates of Jurassic Ammonites in Relation to Sea-level Fluctuations https://pubs.geoscie[...] 2023-08-26
_[307] 논문 The Early Evolutionary History of Belemnites: New Data from Japan 2014-05-02
_[308] 논문 The palaeobiology of belemnites – foundation for the interpretation of rostrum geochemistry 2020-02-00
_[309] 논문 Taxonomy, morphology and phylogeny of Lower Jurassic loligosepiid coleoids (Cephalopoda) http://www.schweizer[...] 2008-07-11
_[310] 논문 The Muensterelloidea: phylogeny and character evolution of Mesozoic stem octopods https://onlinelibrar[...] 2020-02-00
_[311] 논문 First Middle–Late Jurassic gladius vestiges provide new evidence on the detailed origin of incirrate and cirrate octopuses (Coleoidea) http://link.springer[...] 2018-06-00
_[312] 논문 Proteroctopus ribeti in coleoid evolution 2016
_[313] 일반
_[314] 일반
_[315] 뉴스 2018-07-00
_[316] 서적 じゅらき 三省堂
_[317] 웹사이트 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)の解説 https://kotobank.jp/[...] コトバンク 2018-01-08
_[318] 서적 要説　地質年代 京都大学学術出版会
_[319] 논문 Terrestrial and marine extinction at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary. synchoronized with major carbon cycle perturbation: A link to initiation of massive volcanism
_[320] 논문 Fossil plants and global warming at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary.
_[321] 논문 Macroecological responses of terrestrial vegetation to climatic and atmospheric change across the Triassic/Jurassic boundary in East Greenland.
_[322] 간행물 AN INVENTORY OF MESOZOIC MAMMALS AND NON-MAMMALIAN THERAPSIDS IN NATIONAL PARK SERVICE AREAS
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