페름기-트라이아스기 대량절멸

3. 대멸종

고생대 육상 생물은 양서류와 단궁류가 주를 이루었고, 중생대는 공룡을 비롯한 파충류가 번성했다. 페름기-트라이아스기 경계(P-T 경계)는 이러한 생물군의 교체를 야기한 대멸종이 발생한 시기이다. 해양 무척추동물은 종 수준에서 90% 이상^[611], 속 수준에서 82%^[612], 과 수준에서 50%가 멸종했다. 삼엽충, 고생대형 산호, 푸줄리나 등 고생대에 번성했던 생물종이 이 시기에 멸종했다.^[611] 척추동물은 과 수준에서 82%가 멸종했으며,^[613] 곤충은 11개 목이 멸종하였고,^[614] 식물 등 육상 생물도 많은 종류가 멸종했다.

이는 캄브리아기 이후 최대 규모의 멸종으로, 공룡 멸종으로 유명한 백악기-팔레오기 경계(K-Pg 경계)보다 훨씬 크다.^[534] 대멸종의 원인에 대해서는 여러 가설이 제시되고 있으나, 현재 지질학자 대다수가 동의하는 가설은 시베리아 트랩 가설이다.

페름기에는 곤충과 다른 무척추동물 종의 다양성이 컸으며, 역대 가장 큰 곤충을 포함한다. 페름기 말 대멸종은 곤충에게 알려진 가장 큰 규모의 대멸종이며,^[122][123] 일부 자료에서는 곤충 다양성에 큰 영향을 미친 유일한 대멸종이라고도 한다.^[124][125] 8~9개의 곤충 목이 멸종되었고, 10개가 더 다양성이 크게 감소했다. 고생시목류 (입이 찌르고 빨아먹는 곤충)는 페름기 중기에 감소하기 시작했는데, 이는 식물의 변화와 연관된 것으로 보인다. 가장 큰 감소는 페름기 후기에 발생했으며 날씨와 관련된 식물 변화로 직접 발생하지는 않았을 것이다.^[20] 다만, 페름기-트라이아스기 대멸종에서 관찰된 일부 곤충군 감소는 완전한 멸종보다는 생물지리적 변화였다.^[126]

고생대 마지막 시기인 페름기('''P'''ermian)와 중생대 첫 시기인 트라이아스기('''T'''riassic)의 경계에 위치한 시기라는 점에서, 두 시기의 머리글자를 따서 "'''P-T 경계'''"라고 명명되었다.

1990년대 이후 새로운 분석 기술에 기반한 연구가 발전하면서, 이전까지 수백만 년 동안 이어진 사건이라고 생각되어 왔던 P-T 경계 대멸종이^[535], 실제로는 더 짧은 기간 동안 두 차례의 대량 멸종으로 발생했다는 사실이 밝혀졌다. 1996년 미국의 노르(Nor)는 "멸종 사건은 약 2억 6000만 년 전과 약 2억 5000만 년 전의 두 차례에 걸쳐 일어났다"고 사이언스에 발표했다.^[537]

첫 번째 사건은 페름기 중기 과달루페세 말기에 해당하며, 해수면이 갑자기 낮아져 다수의 해양 생물이 멸종하고 육상 생물도 환경 변화로 대량 멸종했다. 두 번째 사건은 고생대 생태계를 궤멸시킨 파국적인 대량 멸종에 해당한다.^[535] 중국 남부 메이산 암초 지층^[538] 분석 결과, 2억 5160만 년 전에 갑자기 멸종이 시작되어 백만 년 동안 대멸종이 일어났다고 추정된다.^[540][541] 하이준 쏭(Haijiun Song) 외 (2013)의 연구에서는, 이 멸종 사건은 페름기 말 (252.28Myr)과 트라이아스기 최전기 (252.10Myr)의 두 차례로 나뉘며, 전자의 경우 대부분의 부유 생물 및 약간의 저서 생물을 중심으로 56.5%의 종이 멸종했고, 후자의 경우, 남은 종의 70.9%가 멸종했다고 결론짓고 있다.^[543]

3. 1. 해양 생물

무척추동물은 페름기-트라이아스기 대량절멸 동안 가장 큰 손실을 입었다. 페름기 이빨화석을 포함하는 마지막 두 개의 퇴적층 내에서 329개 해양 무척추동물 속 중 286개가 사라졌다.^[12] 생물 다양성의 감소는 종분화의 감소보다는 멸종의 급격한 증가로 인해 발생했을 것이다.^[72]

멸종은 주로 탄산 칼슘 골격을 가진 유기체, 특히 골격을 생성하기 위해 안정적인 CO₂ 수준에 의존하는 유기체에 영향을 미쳤다. 이들 유기체는 대기 중 CO₂ 증가로 인한 해양 산성화의 영향에 취약했다.^[73] 산소 운반을 위해 헤모시아닌 또는 헤모글로빈에 의존하는 유기체는 헤메리트린 또는 산소 확산을 이용하는 유기체보다 멸종에 더 강했다.^[74] 또한 특정 지역에 고유하고 국한된 이매패류 분류군은 범세계적인 분류군보다 멸종될 가능성이 더 높았다.^[75]

저서생물 중, 멸종 사건은 배경 멸종률을 증가시켰고, 따라서 높은 배경 멸종률을 가진 분류군, 즉 높은 개체수 변동을 가진 분류군에서 최대 종 손실을 야기했다.^[78][79] 해양 유기체의 멸종률은 참혹했다.^[12][80][81]

생존한 해양 무척추동물 그룹에는 페름기-트라이아스기 멸종 이후 개체수가 서서히 감소한 완족동물 (경첩이 있는 것),^[83] 암모나이트의 세라티티다목,^[84] 그리고 거의 멸종될 뻔했지만 나중에 풍부해지고 다양해진 바다나리가 포함되었다.^[84] 생존율이 가장 높은 그룹은 일반적으로 순환계를 능동적으로 제어하고, 정교한 가스 교환 메커니즘을 가지며, 가벼운 석회화를 보였다. 더 무겁게 석회화되고 호흡 장치가 더 단순한 유기체는 종 다양성이 가장 크게 감소했다.^[85][86]

암모노이드는 로드기 (중기 페름기) 이후 3천만 년 동안 장기적인 감소를 겪었고, 주요 사건 1천만 년 전에 카피타니안 단계 말기에 선택적인 멸종 급증을 겪었다. 다양성과 격차는 페름기-트라이아스기 경계까지 더욱 감소했다. 여기서의 멸종(P–Tr)은 비선택적이었고, 참혹한 시작과 일치했다. 트라이아스기 동안 다양성은 빠르게 증가했지만 격차는 낮게 유지되었다.^[89]

매미류는 페름기-트라이아스기 대량절멸(PTME)이 시작되기 전 창싱기 동안 지속적인 다양성 교란을 겪었고, 이때 엄청난 비율의 매미류가 갑자기 사라졌다.^[91] 최소 74%의 매미류가 PTME 자체 동안 멸종되었다.^[92]

이끼벌레는 PTME 동안 훨씬 더 참혹한 손실을 겪기 전 후기 페름기 전체에 걸쳐 장기적인 감소를 겪었으며,^[93] 로포포라타 중 가장 심각한 영향을 받은 클레이드였다.^[232]

심해 해면류는 상당한 다양성 손실을 겪었고 PTME 과정에서 골침 크기가 감소했다. 얕은 물 해면류는 훨씬 덜 심각한 영향을 받았다.^[94]

유공충은 심각한 다양성 병목 현상을 겪었다.^[95] 최후 페름기 유공충의 약 93%가 멸종되었으며, 텍스툴라리나(Textulariina) 클레이드의 50%, 라게니다(Lagenida)의 92%, 푸줄리니다(Fusulinida)의 96%, 밀리오리다(Miliolida)의 100%가 사라졌다.^[98] 석회질 유공충은 91%의 멸종률을 겪었다.^[99]

클라드돈토모프 상어는 초기 백악기 클라드돈토모프가 깊고 바깥쪽 선반 환경에서 발견된 것을 바탕으로 한 가설에 따라, 깊은 바다의 피난처에서 생존함으로써 멸종을 견뎌냈을 가능성이 있다.^[101] PTME 직전에 진화한 어룡 또한 PTME 생존자였다.^[102]

릴리풋 효과, 대량 멸종 사건 동안과 직후 종의 왜소화 현상은 페름기-트라이아스기 경계에서 관찰되었으며,^[103][104] 특히 유공충,^{[105][106][107]} 완족류,^{[108][109][110]} 이매패류,^{[111][112][113]} 및 매미류에서 발생했다.^[114][115]

3. 2. 육상 생물

• 파충류: 페름기 중기에 서식했던 26속 중, 과달루피안 말에 해당하는 약 2억 6천만 년 전에 9속이 절멸했다. 그 후 다양성이 회복되어 44속이 되었지만 P-T 경계 이후 다시 큰 영향을 받아 살아남은 것은 7속뿐이었다.^[558]
• 단궁류: 디키노돈 등의 단궁류는 P-T 경계에서 35속이 2속으로 줄었다.^[559]
• 곤충류: 곤충류의 역사에서 P-T 경계는 유일한 대량 절멸 사건이다. 페름기에 22목이 서식했다고 여겨지지만 그 중 8목이 소멸했고, 다른 5목이 많은 과를 잃었다. 곤충류는 그 후 1, 2목밖에 절멸하지 않았다.^[560]

3. 3. 식물

4. 멸종 원인 가설

고생대 말 페름기에 일어난 대멸종은 고생대의 생물들이 중생대의 생물들로 바뀌는 계기가 되었다. 바다에서는 무척추동물 종의 90% 정도가 사라졌고,^[611] 육상에서도 11개 목의 곤충을 포함한 많은 생물들이 멸종했다.^[614] 이는 캄브리아기 이후 가장 큰 규모의 멸종이었다.

이 대멸종의 원인에 대해서는 여러 가설이 있지만, 현재 지질학자 대부분은 시베리아 트랩 가설에 동의한다.

2억 5천만 년 전의 사건을 설명하기는 매우 어렵다. 육상 증거는 대부분 침식되었거나 깊이 묻혀 있고, 해저 확장은 2억 년 이상 완전히 재활용되어 바다 밑에 유용한 지표가 없기 때문이다.

그럼에도 과학자들은 원인에 대한 상당한 증거를 수집했고, 여러 가지 기작을 제안했다. 여기에는 대격변적 과정과 점진적 과정이 모두 포함된다.

• 대격변적 과정: 하나 이상의 대형 유성체 충돌 사건, 증가된 화산 활동, 메탄 하이드레이트 침전물의 해리 또는 메탄 생성 세균에 의한 유기 탄소 침전물의 대사를 통한 해저의 메탄 급증 등이 있다.
• 점진적 과정: 해수면 변화, 증가하는 저산소증, 증가하는 건조함 등이 있다.

4. 1. 화산 활동

5. 현재의 지구 온난화와 비교

페름기-트라이아스기 대량절멸은 현재의 인위적 지구 온난화 상황 및 홀로세 멸종과 비교되는데, 이는 이산화 탄소의 급격한 방출이라는 공통적인 특징을 공유하기 때문이다. 현재의 온실 가스 배출 속도는 페름기-트라이아스기 대량절멸 기간 동안 측정된 속도보다 10배 이상 빠르다.^[321] 페름기-트라이아스기 대량절멸 당시와 마찬가지로, 현재 바다는 pH 및 산소 수치가 감소하는 현상을 겪고 있다.^[524] 이러한 유사성은 페름기-트라이아스기 대량절멸과 유사한 사건이 발생하는 것을 막기 위해 이산화탄소 배출을 줄여야 할 필요성이 시급하다는 지질학자들의 경고로 이어졌다.^[321]

지질학자 리 컴프는 다음과 같이 강조한다.

> "페름기-트라이아스기 대량 멸종은 급격한 이산화탄소 배출의 결과를 분명하게 상기시켜 줍니다. 페름기-트라이아스기 대량 멸종 동안 화산 활동은 막대한 양의 CO₂를 방출하여 해양 산성화, 탈산소화, 광범위한 생태계 붕괴를 초래했습니다. 오늘날 우리는 인간의 활동이 이와 유사한 과정을 훨씬 더 빠른 속도로 유발하는 것을 보고 있습니다. 지질 기록은 이러한 임계점에 도달하면 생태계에 대한 연쇄적인 영향이 수백만 년 동안 지속될 수 있음을 보여줍니다."^{[526] [527]}

이산화탄소 수치가 계속 상승하면 현대 해양 생태계에 재앙적인 결과를 초래할 수 있다.

6. 생물 다양성 회복 지연

과거의 모든 대멸종 사건 이후에는 멸종된 생물종을 대신하여 차세대 생물이 번성하며 생물 다양성이 회복되었다. 예를 들어 K-Pg 경계에서는 공룡으로 대표되는 대형 파충류 대부분이 멸종한 후 수십만 년 만에^[591][592] 포유류와 조류가 다양성을 회복했다. 하지만 P-T 경계에서는 생물 다양성 회복이 매우 늦어져^[593] 400만 년 후에도 종의 수가 회복되지 않았으며, 본격적으로 회복된 것은 약 1,000만 년 후였다.^[591] 이러한 회복 지연의 원인은 P-T 경계 이후에도 지구 환경이 생물 생존에 가혹한 조건이었기 때문으로 추정된다.^[594]

멸종으로부터의 회복 속도는 논쟁의 대상이지만, 일부 지역에서는 비교적 빠른 회복이 나타나기도 했다. 아이다호주 베어레이크 군과 그 인근 지역의 연구에서는 국지적인 초기 트라이아스기 해양 생태계에서 약 130만 년 만에 회복이 일어났다는 결과가 나왔다.^[175][176] 또한, 중국 구이양 근처의 구이양 생물군 역시 대량 멸종 이후 불과 100만 년 만에 생명체가 번성했음을 보여준다.^[178][179]

회복 속도와 시기는 분류군과 생활 방식에 따라 달랐다. 암모노이드와 같은 유영 생물은 위기 이후 200만 년 만에 멸종 이전 다양성을 초과했지만,^[191] 해저 생물군은 초기 트라이아스기 말까지 비교적 낮은 다양성을 유지했다.^[189] 최근 연구에 따르면 회복 속도는 종 간의 경쟁 강도에 의해 결정되며, 초기 트라이아스기에 회복이 느렸던 이유는 낮은 수준의 생물학적 경쟁 때문으로 설명될 수 있다.^[194] 또한, 초기 트라이아스기 동안 주기적으로 심각한 상태가 반복되어 추가적인 멸종 사건이 발생했기 때문에 회복이 지연되었다는 주장도 있다.^[197][198]

대부분의 해양 생태계는 중기 트라이아스기에 완전히 회복되었지만, 전 세계 해양 다양성은 대멸종 사건 이후 약 7,500만 년이 지난 중기 쥐라기에야 비로소 멸종 이전 수준에 도달했다.

6. 1. 화석 발견 종 수 감소

6. 2. 스트로마톨라이트 번성

6. 3. 식물 상황

7. 일본 내 P-T 경계

일본 내 페름기-트라이아스기(P-T) 경계는 기후현, 아이치현, 교토부, 도쿠시마현, 고치현, 에히메현, 오이타현, 미야자키현 등지에 분포한다.^{[607][608][609][610]}

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_[347] 논문 Sulfur geochemistry across a terrestrial Permian–Triassic boundary section in the Karoo Basin, South Africa https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-31
_[348] 웹사이트 Volcanism http://hoopermuseum.[...] Carleton University
_[349] 논문 Earth's biggest 'whodunnit': Unravelling the clues in the case of the end-
_[351] 논문 Siberian gas venting and the end-Permian environmental crisis https://www.scienced[...] 2023-01-13
_[352] 논문 Paleomagnetism of trap intrusions, East Siberia: Implications to flood basalt emplacement and the Permo–Triassic crisis of biosphere https://linkinghub.e[...] 2014-05
_[353] 논문 High temperature methane emissions from Large Igneous Provinces as contributors to late Permian mass extinctions 2022-11-12
_[354] 논문 Initial pulse of Siberian Traps sills as the trigger of the end-Permian mass extinction 2017-07-31
_[355] 논문 Permo–Triassic boundary carbon and mercury cycling linked to terrestrial ecosystem collapse 2020-06-11
_[356] 논문 Role of volcanism and impact heating in mass extinction climate shifts 2024-04-30
_[357] 뉴스 Ancient mass extinction tied to torched coal http://content.usato[...] 2011-01-24
_[358] 논문 Catastrophic dispersion of coal fly ash into oceans during the latest Permian extinction 2011-01-23
_[359] 간행물 Researchers find smoking gun of world's biggest extinction: Massive volcanic eruption, burning coal and accelerated greenhouse gas choked out life http://www.eurekaler[...] University of Calgary 2011-01-26
_[360] 논문 Latest Permian chars may derive from wildfires, not coal combustion https://pubs.geoscie[...] 2023-05-31
_[361] 논문 The chemical compositions and abundances of volatiles in the Siberian large igneous province: Constraints on magmatic CO₂ and SO₂ emissions into the atmosphere 2013
_[362] 논문 The effects of large igneous provinces on the global carbon and sulphur cycles https://www.scienced[...] 2024-01-12
_[363] 논문 Transition into a Hothouse World at the Permian–Triassic boundary—A model study https://www.scienced[...] 2024-10-13
_[364] 논문 Marine siliceous ecosystem decline led to sustained anomalous Early Triassic warmth 2022-06-18
_[365] 논문 Mercury anomalies across the end Permian mass extinction in South China from shallow and deep water depositional environments https://www.scienced[...] 2024-10-13
_[366] 논문 Mercury evidence from southern Pangea terrestrial sections for end-Permian global volcanic effects 2023-01-03
_[367] 논문 Global mercury cycle during the end-Permian mass extinction and subsequent Early Triassic recovery https://linkinghub.e[...] 2024-06-18
_[368] 논문 Progressive environmental deterioration in northwestern Pangea leading to the latest Permian extinction https://pubs.geoscie[...] 2023-01-14
_[369] 논문 Mercury anomalies associated with three extinction events (Capitanian Crisis, Latest Permian Extinction and the Smithian/Spathian Extinction) in NW Pangea
_[370] 논문 Latest Permian mercury anomalies https://pubs.geoscie[...] 2023-01-14
_[371] 논문 Toxic mercury pulses into late Permian terrestrial and marine environments 2020-05-19
_[372] 논문 Volcanogenic mercury and plant mutagenesis during the end-Permian mass extinction: Palaeoecological perturbation in northern Pangaea https://www.scienced[...] 2024-10-13
_[373] 논문 Metal-induced stress in survivor plants following the end-Permian collapse of land ecosystems 2021-02-05
_[374] 논문 Mercury deposition through the Permo–Triassic Biotic Crisis https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-31
_[375] 논문 Role of degassing of the Noril'sk nickel deposits in the Permian–Triassic mass extinction event 2017-02-21
_[376] 논문 Global nickel anomaly links Siberian Traps eruptions and the latest Permian mass extinction 2017-09-29
_[377] 논문 Nickel isotopes link Siberian Traps aerosol particles to the end-Permian mass extinction 2021-04-01
_[378] 논문 A new high-resolution δ13C record for the Early Triassic: Insights from the Arabian Platform https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-26
_[379] 논문 An integrated biostratigraphy (conodonts and foraminifers) and chronostratigraphy (paleomagnetic reversals, magnetic susceptibility, elemental chemistry, carbon isotopes and geochronology) for the Permian–Upper Triassic strata of Guandao section, Nanpanjiang Basin, south China https://linkinghub.e[...] 2024-06-18
_[380] 논문 Mercury enrichments provide evidence of Early Triassic volcanism following the end-Permian mass extinction https://linkinghub.e[...] 2024-06-18
_[381] 논문 Early Triassic fluctuations of the global carbon cycle: New evidence from paired carbon isotopes in the western USA basin https://www.scienced[...] 2022-11-13
_[382] 논문 Tracking voluminous Permian volcanism of the Choiyoi Province into central Antarctica 2019-03-29
_[383] 논문 The Choiyoi magmatism in south western Gondwana: implications for the end-permian mass extinction - a review 2017-09-29
_[386] 논문 The potential volume of oceanic methane hydrates with variable external conditions
_[387] 논문 Carbon isotope anomaly at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary from a marine section in Hungary
_[388] 논문 "Ar ⁄ Ar dates from the West Siberian Basin: Siberian flood basalt province doubled" http://eprints.gla.a[...]
_[389] 논문 A unique geochemical record at the Permian/Triassic boundary
_[390] 논문 Phytogeography of Eurasia during the early Triassic
_[391] 논문 Methane-driven oceanic eruptions and mass extinctions 2003-09
_[392] 논문 "¹³C depth profiles from paleosols across the Permian–Triassic boundary: Evidence for methane release" https://pubs.geoscie[...] 2023-07-03
_[393] 논문 Dissociation of oceanic methane hydrate as a cause of the carbon isotope excursion at the end of the Paleocene
_[394] 논문 On the initiation of a snowball Earth
_[395] 논문 Examination of hypotheses for the Permo-Triassic boundary extinction by carbon cycle modeling
_[396] 논문 How to kill (almost) all life: The end-Permian extinction event
_[397] 논문 "Massive and rapid predominantly volcanic CO₂ emission during the end-Permian mass extinction" 2021-09-07
_[398] 논문 "Six-fold increase of atmospheric ''p''CO₂ during the Permian–Triassic mass extinction" https://www.research[...] 2024-03-26
_[399] 논문 End-Permian mass extinction pattern in the northern peri-Gondwanan region https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-26
_[400] 논문 Gas hydrate contribution to Late Permian global warming https://www.scienced[...] 2024-01-12
_[401] 논문 Marine clade sensitivities to climate change conform across timescales https://www.nature.c[...] 2023-03-26
_[402] 논문 Initial assessment of the carbon emission rate and climatic consequences during the end-Permian mass extinction https://www.scienced[...] 2023-06-26
_[403] 논문 Calcium isotope constraints on the end-Permian mass extinction
_[404] 논문 Millennial-scale sedimentary evolution of carbonate platforms during the Permian–Triassic boundary hyperthermal event https://linkinghub.e[...] 2024-10-13
_[405] 논문 Ocean acidification and the Permo-Triassic mass extinction http://eprints.white[...] 2015-04-10
_[406] 논문 Global oolite deposits across the Permian–Triassic boundary: A synthesis and implications for palaeoceanography immediately after the end-Permian biocrisis https://linkinghub.e[...] 2024-06-18
_[407] 논문 Permian lysocline shoaling and ocean acidification along NW Pangea led to carbonate eradication and chert expansion https://www.scienced[...] 2024-03-26
_[408] 논문 Death in the shallows: The record of Permo-Triassic mass extinction in paralic settings, southwest China 2020-06
_[409] 논문 Bioindicators of severe ocean acidification are absent from the end-Permian mass extinction 2022-01-24
_[410] 서적 The Worst of Times: How Life on Earth Survived Eighty Million Years of Extinctions Princeton University Press 2015-09-29
_[411] 논문 Elevated atmospheric CO2 and the delayed biotic recovery from the end-Permian mass extinction https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-31
_[412] 논문 Mantle plume: The invisible serial killer — Application to the Permian–Triassic boundary mass extinction https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-26
_[413] 논문 Terrestrial acidification during the end-Permian biosphere crisis? https://pubs.geoscie[...] 2022-12-23
_[414] 논문 Abrupt chemical weathering increase across the Permian–Triassic boundary https://www.scienced[...] 2023-04-24
_[415] 논문 Impact of Permian mass extinctions on continental invertebrate infauna https://onlinelibrar[...] 2022-12-23
_[416] 논문 Clay mineralogical characteristics at the Permian–Triassic Shangsi section and their paleoenvironmental and/or paleoclimatic significance https://www.scienced[...] 2022-12-23
_[417] 논문 Anomalous hopane distributions at the Permian–Triassic boundary, Meishan, China – Evidence for the end-Permian marine ecosystem collapse https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-23
_[418] 논문 Could acidity be the reason behind the Early Triassic biotic crisis on land? https://www.scienced[...] 2022-12-18
_[419] 논문 Stagewise collapse of biotic communities and its relations to oxygen depletion along the north margin of Nanpanjiang Basin during the Permian–Triassic transition https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-31
_[420] 논문 End-Permian marine extinction due to temperature-driven nutrient recycling and euxinia https://www.nature.c[...] 2021-10-28
_[421] 논문 Presidential Address 2007: The end-Permian mass extinction — events on land in Russia https://linkinghub.e[...] 2024-06-18
_[422] 서적 Catastrophic Events and Mass Extinction: Impacts and Beyond Geological Society of America Special Papers No. 356 2024-02-17
_[423] 논문 Episodic euxinia in the Changhsingian (late Permian) of South China: Evidence from framboidal pyrite and geochemical data https://linkinghub.e[...] 2024-06-18
_[424] 논문 Constraining marine anoxia under the extremely oxygenated Permian atmosphere using uranium isotopes in calcitic brachiopods and marine carbonates https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-31
_[425] 논문 Enhanced nitrogen fixation in the immediate aftermath of the latest Permian marine mass extinction https://pubs.geoscie[...] 2023-05-26
_[426] 논문 Selenium isotope ratios, redox changes and biological productivity across the end-Permian mass extinction https://linkinghub.e[...] 2024-03-13
_[427] 논문 Source and significance of selected polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments (Hovea-3 well, Perth Basin, Western Australia) spanning the Permian–Triassic boundary https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-31
_[428] 논문 Geochemical evidence from bio-apatite for multiple oceanic anoxic events during Permian–Triassic transition and the link with end-Permian extinction and recovery https://www.scienced[...] 2023-01-13
_[429] 논문 Rapid expansion of oceanic anoxia immediately before the end-Permian mass extinction 2011-10-10
_[430] 논문 Manganous water column in the Tethys Ocean during the Permian-Triassic transition https://www.scienced[...] 2023-06-26
_[431] 논문 Oceanic redox evolution around the end-Permian mass extinction at Meishan, South China https://linkinghub.e[...] 2024-08-01
_[432] 논문 Frequent euxinia in southern Neo-Tethys Ocean prior to the end-Permian biocrisis: Evidence from the Spiti region, India 2019-02-15
_[433] 논문 Periodic fluctuations of marine oxygen content during the latest Permian https://www.scienced[...] 2023-03-02
_[434] 논문 Biogeochemical evidence for euxinic oceans and ecological disturbance presaging the end-Permian mass extinction event
_[435] 논문 Cessation of a productive coastal upwelling system in the Panthalassic Ocean at the Permian–Triassic Boundary https://www.scienced[...] 2022-12-21
_[436] 논문 Biomarker and isotopic trends in a Permian–Triassic sedimentary section at Kap Stosch, Greenland https://espace.curti[...]
_[437] 논문 Evidence for photic zone euxinia through the end-Permian mass extinction in the Panthalassic Ocean (Peace River Basin, Western Canada) https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-23
_[438] 논문 Contrasting microbial community changes during mass extinctions at the Middle/Late Permian and Permian/Triassic boundaries https://www.scienced[...] 2023-01-04
_[439] 논문 Relationships between carbon isotope evolution and variation of microbes during the Permian–Triassic transition at Meishan Section, South China http://link.springer[...] 2024-08-01
_[440] 논문 Mercury isotope evidence for marine photic zone euxinia across the end-Permian mass extinction 2023-05-08
_[441] 논문 Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction 2018-12-07
_[442] 논문 Evidence for a prolonged Permian–Triassic extinction interval from global marine mercury records 2019-04-05
_[443] 논문 An end-Permian two-stage extinction pattern in the deep-water Dongpan Section, and its relationship to the migration and vertical expansion of the oxygen minimum zone in the South China Basin https://www.scienced[...] 2024-10-13
_[444] 논문 Biogeochemical controls on photic-zone euxinia during the end-Permian mass extinction 2008-09
_[445] 논문 Causes and consequences of extreme Permo-Triassic warming to globally equable climate and relation to the Permo-Triassic extinction and recovery https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-23
_[446] 논문 Catastrophic soil erosion during the end-Permian biotic crisis https://pubs.geoscie[...] 2023-05-26
_[447] 논문 Sedimentary records of sea level fall during the end-Permian in the upper Yangtze region (southern China): Implications for the mass extinction 2024-05-30
_[448] 논문 Plankton and productivity during the Permian–Triassic boundary crisis: An analysis of organic carbon fluxes https://www.scienced[...] 2023-07-03
_[449] 논문 Marine snowstorm during the Permian−Triassic mass extinction 2023-11-29
_[450] 논문 A nutrient control on marine anoxia during the end-Permian mass extinction https://www.nature.c[...] 2023-01-08
_[451] 논문 An extensive anoxic event in the Triassic of the South China Block: A pyrite framboid study from Dajiang and its implications for the cause(s) of oxygen depletion https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-08
_[456] 논문 Anoxia as a cause of the Permian/Triassic mass extinction: facies evidence from northern Italy and the western United States https://www.scienced[...] 2023-01-20
_[457] 논문 Complete biotic and sedimentary records of the Permian–Triassic transition from Meishan section, South China: Ecologically assessing mass extinction and its aftermath https://www.scienced[...] 2023-01-14
_[458] 논문 High temperature and low oxygen perturbations drive contrasting benthic recovery dynamics following the end-Permian mass extinction https://www.scienced[...] 2023-04-02
_[459] 논문 Terrestrial–marine teleconnections in the collapse and rebuilding of Early Triassic marine ecosystems https://www.scienced[...] 2023-11-24
_[460] 논문 Reconstruction of Early Triassic ocean redox conditions based on framboidal pyrite from the Nanpanjiang Basin, South China https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-08
_[461] 논문 Integrated Sr isotope variations and global environmental changes through the Late Permian to early Late Triassic https://www.scienced[...] 2023-11-24
_[462] 논문 High sediment input and possible oceanic anoxia in the pelagic Panthalassa during the latest Olenekian and early Anisian: Insights from a new deep-sea section in Ogama, Tochigi, Japan https://www.scienced[...] 2023-11-24
_[463] 논문 Hyperthermal-driven anoxia and reduced productivity in the aftermath of the Permian-Triassic mass extinction: a case study from Western Canada 2023-12-13
_[464] 논문 Fluctuations of redox conditions across the Permian–Triassic boundary—New evidence from the GSSP section in Meishan of South China https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-26
_[465] 논문 Volatile earliest Triassic sulfur cycle: A consequence of persistent low seawater sulfate concentrations and a high sulfur cycle turnover rate? https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-26
_[466] 논문 Could the Late Permian deep ocean have been anoxic?
_[467] 논문 Lethal microbial blooms delayed freshwater ecosystem recovery following the end-Permian extinction 2021-09-17
_[468] 논문 Taphonomy of drought afflicted tetrapods in the Early Triassic Karoo Basin, South Africa https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-23
_[469] 논문 Wildfire response to rapid climate change during the Permian-Triassic biotic crisis https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-23
_[470] 논문 Ecological disturbance in tropical peatlands prior to marine Permian-Triassic mass extinction 2020-01-03
_[471] 논문 Impacts of global warming on Permo-Triassic terrestrial ecosystems https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-26
_[472] 논문 Changing fluvial environments across the Permian–Triassic boundary in the Karoo Basin, South Africa and possible causes of tetrapod extinctions 1999-11-16
_[473] 서적 Forerunners of mammals : radiation, histology, biology Indiana University Press
_[474] 논문 Calcic Vertisols in the upper Daptocephalus Assemblage Zone, Balfour Formation, Karoo Basin, South Africa: Implications for Late Permian Climate https://pubs.geoscie[...] 2023-05-31
_[475] 논문 Sedimentology of the continental end-Permian extinction event in the Sydney Basin, eastern Australia https://onlinelibrar[...] 2022-10-30
_[476] 논문 Age and pattern of the southern high-latitude continental end-Permian extinction constrained by multiproxy analysis 2019-01-23
_[477] 논문 Latest Permian–Early Triassic paleoclimatic reconstruction by sedimentary and isotopic analyses of paleosols from the Shichuanhe section in central North China Basin https://www.scienced[...] 2022-11-06
_[478] 논문 Improving paleoenvironment in North China aided Triassic biotic recovery on land following the end-Permian mass extinction 2022-09
_[479] 논문 Evolution of Crustaceans at the edge of the end-Permian crisis: Ichnonetwork analysis of the fluvial succession of Nurra (Permian–Triassic, Sardinia, Italy) https://www.scienced[...] 2023-04-08
_[480] 논문 Acid rain and ozone depletion from pulsed Siberian Traps magmatism http://pubs.geoscien[...] 2024-06-18
_[481] 논문 A tale of two extinctions: converging end-Permian and end-Triassic scenarios https://pubs.geoscie[...] 2023-05-26
_[482] 논문 UV-B–induced forest sterility: Implications of ozone shield failure in Earth's largest extinction 2018-02-07
_[483] 논문 Hyperthermal-driven mass extinctions: killing models during the Permian–Triassic mass extinction 2018-09-03
_[484] 논문 Abnormal pollen grains: an outcome of deteriorating atmospheric conditions around the Permian–Triassic boundary https://www.lyellcol[...] 2023-05-26
_[485] 논문 Dying in the Sun: Direct evidence for elevated UV-B radiation at the end-Permian mass extinction 2023-01-06
_[486] 논문 Atmospheric ozone destruction and the end-Permian crisis: Evidence from multiple sulfur isotopes https://linkinghub.e[...] 2024-05-21
_[487] 논문
_[491] 논문 Role of hydrogen sulfide in a Permian-Triassic boundary ozone collapse 2007-01-16
_[492] 논문 Impacts of a massive release of methane and hydrogen sulfide on oxygen and ozone during the late Permian mass extinction https://linkinghub.e[...] 2024-06-18
_[493] 논문 Massive release of hydrogen sulfide to the surface ocean and atmosphere during intervals of oceanic anoxia https://www.research[...] 2023-04-02
_[494] 서적 Under a Green Sky: Global Warming, the Mass Extinctions of the Past, and What They Can Tell Us About Our Future HarperCollins 2007-04-17
_[495] 논문 Theory and classification of mass extinction causation 2023-09-08
_[496] 논문 Search for evidence of impact at the Permian–Triassic boundary in Antarctica and Australia
_[497] 논문 Bedout: a possible end-Permian impact crater offshore of northwestern Australia
_[498] 논문 Impact event at the Permian–Triassic boundary: Evidence from extraterrestrial noble gases in fullerenes
_[499] 논문 Chondritic meteorite fragments associated with the Permian–Triassic boundary in Antarctica
_[500] 논문 End-Permian catastrophe by a bolide impact: Evidence of a gigantic release of sulfur from the mantle
_[501] 논문 An extraterrestrial impact at the Permian–Triassic boundary?
_[502] 논문 End-Permian catastrophe by bolide impact: Evidence of a gigantic release of sulfur from the mantle: Comment and Reply
_[503] 논문 Search for evidence of impact at the Permian–Triassic boundary in Antarctica and Australia; discussion and reply
_[504] 논문 Geochemistry of the end-Permian extinction event in Austria and Italy: No evidence for an extraterrestrial component
_[505] conference Reexamination of quartz grains from the Permian–Triassic boundary section at Graphite Peak, Antarctica http://www.lpi.usra.[...] 2007-07-13
_[506] 논문 The Permian-Triassic boundary event: a geochemical study of three Chinese sections https://www.scienced[...] 2023-05-31
_[507] 논문 Impact induced melting and the development of large igneous provinces
_[508] conference Giant Impact Craters Lead To Flood Basalts: A Viable Model http://abob.libs.uga[...] 2008-04-06
_[509] conference Large Oceanic Impacts As The Cause Of Antipodal Hotspots And Global Mass Extinctions http://abob.libs.uga[...] 2008-04-06
_[510] 논문 Early Triassic terrestrial tetrapod fauna: a review https://www.scienced[...] 2023-01-04
_[511] 논문 What caused Earth's largest mass extinction event? New evidence from the Permian-Triassic boundary in northeastern Utah https://www.scienced[...] 2023-04-02
_[512] 논문 Permian–Triassic mascon in Antarctica https://www.research[...] 2006
_[513] 논문 GRACE gravity evidence for an impact basin in Wilkes Land, Antarctica https://www.research[...] 2009-02-25
_[514] 논문 Geochronological constraints on the age of a Permo–Triassic impact event: U–Pb and {{sup|40}}Ar ''/'' {{sup|39}}Ar results for the 40 km Araguainha structure of central Brazil 2012-06-01
_[515] 간행물 Biggest extinction in history caused by climate-changing meteor http://www.news.uwa.[...] University of Western Australia 2013-07-31
_[516] 논문 Shaking a methane fizz: Seismicity from the Araguainha impact event and the Permian–Triassic global carbon isotope record https://www.scienced[...] 2024-03-26
_[517] 논문 End-Permian impactogenic earthquake and tsunami deposits in the intracratonic Paraná Basin of Brazil https://pubs.geoscie[...] 2024-03-26
_[518] 논문 Geophysical evidence for a la impact structure on the Falkland (Malvinas) Plateau
_[519] 논문 Comment on "Geophysical evidence for a large impact structure on the Falkland (Malvinas) Plateau" http://nora.nerc.ac.[...] 2023-03-26
_[520] 논문 Methanogenic burst in the end-Permian carbon cycle 2014-03-31
_[521] 논문 Carbon Isotope Chemostratigraphy Across the Permian-Triassic Boundary at Chaotian, China: Implications for the Global Methane Cycle in the Aftermath of the Extinction 2021-02-05
_[522] 논문 The end-Permian mass extinction: A still unexplained catastrophe
_[523] 서적 Alone in the Universe: Why our Planet is Unique John Wiley & Sons
_[524] 논문 End-Permian Mass Extinction in the Oceans: An Ancient Analog for the Twenty-First Century? https://www.annualre[...] 2023-05-31
_[525] 논문 The fossil record of plant-insect interactions and associated entomofaunas in Permian and Triassic floras from southwestern Gondwana: A review and future prospects https://linkinghub.e[...] 2024-06-18
_[526] 웹사이트 Greatest mass extinction driven by acidic oceans, study finds https://www.scienced[...] 2024-11-24
_[527] 뉴스 Opinion | When Life on Earth Was Nearly Extinguished https://www.nytimes.[...] 2017-07-29
_[528] 문서 三畳紀の始まりは[[コノドント]]の種ヒンデオダス・パルヴスの化石で規定される、「大絶滅」P279
_[529] 문서 「大絶滅」P278
_[530] 문서 シカゴ大学のセプコスキの計算では最大96%の種が絶滅した。「生命と地球の歴史」P137
_[531] 문서 「大絶滅」P8
_[532] 문서 「生命と地球の歴史」P137
_[533] 문서 「大絶滅」P153
_[534] 문서 「生命と地球の共進化」P207
_[535] 문서 「大絶滅」P10
_[536] 논문 "A double mass extinction at the end of the Paleozoic era." 1994
_[537] 문서 「生命と地球の共進化」P213
_[538] 문서 この地層はペルム紀末から三畳紀にかけての[[国際標準模式層断面及び地点|国際模式層序地]] (GSSPs) に指定されている。
_[539] 문서 この火山灰は、当時煤山の近くにあった[[火山]]の爆発的な噴火により供給されたもので、シベリア洪水玄武岩のものではない
_[540] 문서 「大絶滅」P72、元データはBowring,S.A., D.H.Erwin, Y.G.Jin, M.W.Martin, K.L.Davidek, and W.Wang. 1998. "U/Pb zircon geochronology and tempo of end-Permian mass extinction.2 Science 280:1039-45
_[541] 문서 火山灰中の[[ジルコン]]結晶に含まれる[[ウラン]]・[[鉛]]分析の結果から算出。
_[542] 문서 「大絶滅」P95
_[543] 학술지 Two pulses of extinction during the Permian-Triassic crisis 2013
_[544] 문서 参考文献中ではアンモナイトとアンモノイドの表記が混在しているが、この項ではアンモナイトに統一して表記する
_[545] 문서 「大絶滅」P108
_[546] 문서 「大絶滅」P110
_[547] 문서 「大絶滅」P111
_[548] 문서 「大絶滅」P121
_[549] 문서 「大絶滅」P114
_[550] 문서 「大絶滅」P119
_[551] 문서 「大絶滅」P122
_[552] 문서 「大絶滅」P118
_[553] 문서 「大絶滅」P123
_[554] 문서 「大絶滅」P124
_[555] 문서 「大絶滅」P126、元の論文は Bambach, R.K., A.H.knoll, and J.J.Sepkoski,Jr.2002."Anatomical and ecological constrains on Phanerozoic animal diversity in the marine realm."Proceedings of the National Academy of Science,USA 99:6854-59
_[556] 문서 既に絶滅に近い状態にまで衰退していた三葉虫・ウミサソリ類・棘魚類などはこの時に完全に絶えてしまった。
_[557] 문서 「大絶滅」P127
_[558] 문서 「大絶滅」P146
_[559] 문서 「大絶滅」P141
_[560] 문서 「大絶滅」P160
_[561] 서적 大絶滅
_[562] 서적 大絶滅
_[563] 서적 大絶滅
_[564] 서적 大絶滅
_[565] 문서
_[566] 서적 大絶滅
_[567] 논문 "Permo-Triassic intraplate magmatism and rifting in Eurasia: implications for mantle plumes and mantle dynamics."
_[568] 논문 "Synchrony and casual relations between Permian-Triassic boundary crises and Siberian flood volcanism."
_[569] 서적 大絶滅
_[570] 서적 生命と地球の歴史
_[571] 논문 "On the ages of flood basalt events."
_[572] 서적 破局噴火 詳伝社新書
_[573] 문서
_[574] 서적 大絶滅
_[575] 서적 大絶滅
_[576] 서적 大絶滅
_[577] 서적 生命と地球の歴史
_[578] 서적 生命と地球の共進化
_[579] 서적 地球環境46億年の大変動史
_[580] 서적 大絶滅
_[581] 문서
_[582] 문서
_[583] 문서
_[584] 서적 大絶滅
_[585] 서적 大絶滅
_[586] 뉴스 Archaeageddon: how gas-belching microbes could have caused mass extinction Nature 2014
_[587] 문서
_[588] 서적 地球環境46億年の大変動
_[589] 서적 絶滅恐竜からのメッセージ 地球大異変と人間圏 ワック株式会社
_[590] 문서
_[591] 서적 生命と地球の歴史
_[592] 서적 大絶滅
_[593] 뉴스 Ecosystem Recovery after Mass Extinction Slow 2008
_[594] 서적 大絶滅
_[595] 서적 大絶滅
_[596] 서적 大絶滅
_[597] 서적 大絶滅
_[598] 서적 大絶滅
_[599] 서적 大絶滅
_[600] 서적 大絶滅
_[601] 서적 大絶滅
_[602] 서적 生命と地球の歴史
_[603] 서적 大絶滅
_[604] 서적 大絶滅
_[605] 서적 大絶滅
_[606] 서적 大絶滅
_[607] 웹사이트 2億4500万年前の大絶滅 https://earth-geolog[...]
_[608] 간행물 謎の大絶滅：P-T 境界 http://ext-web.edu.s[...]
_[609] 웹사이트 化石のこばなし 生物の大量絶滅—P/T境界とK/Pg境界 http://www.mus-nh.ci[...]
_[610] 논문 四国の北部秩父帯チャート相上部ペルム系の微化石層序 http://www.terrapub.[...]
_[611] 서적 生命と地球の歴史
_[612] 서적 大絶滅
_[613] 서적 大絶滅
_[614] 웹인용 스콧 R. 쇼. <곤충 연대기>(원제 ). 2015년 11월 6일. 행성B이오스. https://web.archive.[...] 2016-03-24